Divalent cations, particularly calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+), are essential for maintaining chromosomal architecture, yet their roles in plants remain poorly characterized. This study investigated the effects of Ca2+ and Mg2+ on the chromosomal structure of wheat (Triticum aestivum, 2n = 6 & times; = 42), a widely used model in plant cytogenetics. Root-tip chromosomes were isolated enzymatically and treated with BAPTA (1, 2-bis [2-aminophenoxy] ethane-N, N, N ', N '-tetra acetic acid, a Ca2+-specific chelator), EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, a broad cation chelator), and buffer solutions containing either 5 mM Mg2+ (XBE5) or no Mg2+ (XBE). Chromosomes were stained with aceto-orcein for light microscopy and processed for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Microscopic observations revealed that chromosomes subjected to Ca2+ or Mg2+ depletion (BAPTA, EDTA, XBE) appeared elongated, thinner, and more fibrous compared with controls. Quantitative analysis showed that chelation treatments increased chromosomal length by approximately 25-40% and reduced width by about 20% (p < 0.05). The most pronounced differences were observed in EDTA-treated samples, while Mg2+ deficiency had a stronger influence on chromosomal width and area. SEM imaging confirmed decondensation and disruption of chromatin ultrastructure under Ca2+ and Mg2+-limited conditions. This study provides the first quantitative evidence that both Ca2+ and Mg2+ are vital for maintaining higher-order chromosomal organization in plants. By demonstrating their structural significance in wheat chromosomes, these findings highlight the critical role of divalent cations in stabilizing plant chromatin architecture and offer new insights into the molecular basis of chromosome organization in plant cells.
The new genus Erginia is established to accommodate Chondrilla spinosa, a species of previously uncertain systematic placement, with a highly localized distribution in Southeastern Anatolia (T & uuml;rkiye) on alpine screes along two mountain ridges. Although there has been general agreement that the species is a member of the subtribe Crepidinae in its wider sense, including the Chondrillinae, its placement in Chondrilla is based on the superficial resemblance of its achene features, which also do not match any other known genus, and no molecular phylogenetic analysis had clarified its sister group. In this study, we produce additional micro-and macromorphological as well as palynological data and employ molecular phylogenetic analyses to ascertain the relationship of the species. The phylogenetic trees, one based on nrDNA ITS and the other on plastid DNA markers, show that the species is not a member of the clade comprising Chondrilla and related genera but is nested in a polytomy among other Crepidinae genera, without indicating a relationship to any of them. Together with the micro-and macromorphological evidence, this supports the conclusion that the species represents an orphan lineage within Crepidinae, best recognized as a genus of its own. Based on our field observations, the conservation status of Erginia spinosa is assessed as Endangered (EN) due to its very restricted distribution.
This review offers a comprehensive analysis of the expanding role of artificial intelligence (AI) in mycological research. It highlights how AI supports the identification of fungal taxa at both microscopic and macroscopic levels, facilitates the detection of toxic species, contributes to ecological mapping, aids in discovering new fungal bioproducts, and enhances precision agriculture practices. Advanced techniques such as convolutional neural networks, you only look once, U-shaped network (UNet), and residual network have demonstrated strong performance in classification, segmentation, and object detection tasks. Additionally, explainable AI (XAI) methods like gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM), local interpretable model-agnostic explanations (LIME), and SHapley additive exPlanations (SHAP) improve the transparency of model decisions by providing visual and quantitative insights, thereby fostering greater clarity in scientific applications. Practical tools such as MUSH-AI showcase how these technologies can be integrated to improve mushroom cultivation through predictive models, optimisation of environmental conditions, and early detection of diseases. For high-value fungi like truffles, AI has proven valuable in identifying suitable habitats using satellite imagery, analysing mycorrhizal relationships, and interpreting spectral data, offering more efficient alternatives to traditional techniques such as searches with trained dogs. However, the wider application of AI faces several barriers, including a lack of robust training datasets, variability in annotation quality, limited generalisability of models, and insufficient transparency during field deployment. Overcoming these challenges will require the development of standardised, ecologically rich fungal image databases, strong institutional partnerships, and significant investment in infrastructure. In conclusion, AI is becoming a core element in modern fungal research, streamlining species identification, mycotoxin analysis, resource discovery, and conservation efforts through effective and scalable tools. With ongoing advancements in data quality and interpretability, AI is poised to shape the future of integrated and sustainable mycology.
The exogenous application of phytohormones plays a crucial role in the activation of adaptive mechanisms in plants under both normal and stress conditions. Therefore, the present study investigates the synthesis, characterization, and application of nanoensembles based on indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and graphene oxide (GO) nanolayers. The surface of GO synthesized by the modified Hummer method was noncovalently functionalized with IAA molecules. The structure and morphological properties of the prepared materials were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The IAA and IAA+GO nanoensemble enhanced the morphological parameters, lateral root formation, catalase and peroxidase activities, and nitric oxide production of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). It also promoted stem elongation more effectively than pure IAA. Additionally, it significantly boosted polyphenol oxidase activity in leaf tissues. However, IAA+GO reduced the primary root length compared to IAA alone at the same concentration. In summary, the IAA+GO nanoensemble offers a promising approach for enhancing plant growth and development. Its impact on stem elongation, lateral root development, and the activation of enzymatic defense systems points to its potential application in agricultural practices aimed at improving crop productivity and stress resilience. Light and ultrastructural microscopy demonstrated that both IAA and IAA+GO induced cellular gigantism across all examined vegetative organs of cotton plants. Overall, the IAA+GO nanoensemble exhibits a synergistic effect on plant stem elongation and antioxidant defense mechanisms, enhancing nitric oxide-mediated signaling without inducing osmotic stress.
Documenting species, particularly those that are threatened or endangered, is fundamental to biodiversity conservation. However, many taxa remain scientifically unrecognized, being either undiscovered or unpublished. While some plants can be easily recognized as new species, other identifications are obscured by morphological, taxonomic, and nomenclatural complexity. Detecting cryptic or "hidden" species is therefore essential to understanding biodiversity and plant evolution. Our revisionary studies on Salvia demonstrate that the morphologically complex Salvia caespitosa is not a single species but instead comprises at least four distinct species, three with narrow distributions. This conclusion is supported by integrative evidence from extensive field studies, herbarium and nomenclatural work, laboratory analyses (e.g., morphological measurements and micromorphological studies), and molecular phylogenetic data. Our results indicate that S. caespitosa sensu stricto occurs on calcareous substrates in southern and southeastern Central Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean, particularly along the Anatolian Diagonal. The newly described species are the geographically restricted S. antalyensis on limestone cliffs near Antalya, S. sivasensis of the gypsum-rich steppe around Sivas and Malatya, and S. karaeri from chalky steppe soils of the Ermenek-Karaman region. Diagnostic traits distinguishing these species include stem length, inflorescence height relative to leaf level, basal leaf morphology, terminal leaflet shape and size, leaf indumentum, and corolla and calyx characters. Lectotypification is provided for S. caespitosa and its synonym, S. pectinifolia. In addition, critical taxonomic evaluations are given for S. pachystachya and its synonym S. sintenisii, as these species are most similar to S. caespitosa. We also provide revised descriptions, an identification key, distributional data, ecological notes, and IUCN Red List assessments for S. caespitosa and the three new species. With the addition of these three species, the Turkish flora now comprises 110 species (including three hybrids) and 118 Salvia taxa, of which 66 are endemic.
