Kelp Forests under Threat and the Loss of Ecosystem Services They Provide

Kelp forests are under threat worldwide due to a variety of biological and physical factors that include climate change, marine heat waves, storms, coastal development, and overgrazing by sea urchins. This is leading to widespread losses of the important services they provide and an overall reduction in ecosystem value. Chief among these are reductions in the biodiversity of many ecologically and commercially important fishes and invertebrates; lower rates of primary production; altered patterns of seawater chemistry and carbon sequestration; and the loss of biomass that is used for human food, medicine, and industrial and cultural purposes. Therefore, understanding how kelp loss affects these important services and identifying ways to better conserve and restore these iconic forests is of significant economic, social, and ecological concern. This review examines the ecosystem services kelp forests provide and how the loss of these forests affects them. It discusses kelp aquaculture as a potential solution to restore many of these services and explores how advances in our understanding of the kelp microbiome can enhance farming and restoration efforts. It ends with a call for international collaboration in the conservation and restoration of these iconic forests.