The Montagovian assumption of “direct surface composition” (Hausser 1984; Jacobson 1996a) requires that all available readings of this kind should arise directly from the combinatorics of syntax operating over the lexical elements and their meanings. However, the grammar of English appears to offer a single syntactic structure for the sentence, in which the subject takes scope over the object, leaving the second reading unaccounted for. The ability of the object to “invert scope” or take wide scope over the subject in the following example is similarly unexplained:
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