This study assessed pesticide usage patterns, safety behaviours, and the determinants of compliance among smallholder farmers. The findings show that while awareness of pesticide regulations was high (81.40%), actual compliance proved uneven based on socio-economic determinants, particularly concerning the consistent use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and strict adherence to label-directed application rates and schedules. Using generalised linear models, we found that compliance decreased significantly as farmer income increased (p = 0.010) and increased significantly with farmer age (p = 0.030). Furthermore, a Poisson count model revealed that greater knowledge of banned pesticides negatively correlated with adherence to restricted product use rules. Qualitative findings also emphasised persistent structural and behavioural barriers, including inconsistent access to PPE, the influence of subjective norms, and substantial difficulties interpreting technical label text and pictograms. These results underscore that effective pest management interventions must extend beyond simple information campaigns to address these practical constraints, promote accessible label comprehension, and ensure iterative extension support to achieve sustained safe practices and compliance.
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