Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, and Their Associations with Pulmonary and Hepatic Function: a Cross-Sectional Study of a Health Examination Cohort

Smoking and heavy drinking often co‑occur, but their joint effects on lung and liver function in the general population are unclear. We examined their separate and combined associations, dose‑response relationships, and additive interactions. Data came from 1,512 adults who had a health examination in 2025. Smoking was measured in pack‑years, alcohol as pure mL/week. Poor lung function was defined as FEV₁/FVC < 0.7 plus FEV₁