Transboundary crises often create a problem of fit, where existing institutional structures are inadequate to meet the demands of the situation, requiring strategic adaptations. This study examines how Italy, Sweden, and Norway, in different ways, addressed national-level leadership needs of decision-making, coordination, and information flow during the early onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, not only based on how the crisis unfolded but also on important framing conditions. Italy's centralised approach leveraged expert advice to legitimise decisions, Sweden's expert-led strategy minimised political exposure, and Norway's hybrid decision-making model integrated political and expert roles to balance accountability. These approaches illustrate how pre-existing institutional arrangements took part in shaping initial responses, while strategies for managing political risk and framing of responsibility affected the adaptation of leadership practices to better align with situational demands, which appeared central to developing adaptive capacity. This comparative study highlights the significance of structural, political, and framing factors in shaping national responses, providing valuable insights for future research and practice.
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