Despite the essential role of micronutrients in plant metabolic processes and carbon cycle, the mechanisms by which micronutrients regulate plant community traits remain poorly understood. Here, we used a long-term experiment to explore the potential mechanisms of plant community micronutrients and traits along a precipitation gradient. Our results showed that plants shifted toward lateral growth and asexual reproduction over time. From 1985 to 2022, the plant community Fe content increased by 18.8% in the north but declined by 25.2% in the south of the typical steppe. Furthermore, plant community growth and reproduction were sensitive to both micronutrient contents and uptake efficiencies in the north of the typical steppe. While plant community Mn and Zn contents enhanced growth longitudinally, Zn and Fe uptake efficiencies hindered sexual reproduction. Furthermore, soil moisture and GDP per capita were the key drivers of micronutrient variation in the north and south of the typical steppe, respectively. Precipitation fluctuations primarily regulated community traits across all sites. In the arid site, micronutrient-driven shifts in reproduction stabilized the soil carbon stock by balancing biomass allocation. These findings can help us to better understand the coupling of plant micronutrients, traits, and soil carbon stocks, thereby providing the basis for a scientific grassland conservation strategy under global change scenarios.

Grazing plays a crucial role in regulating aboveground biomass (AGB) allocation, decomposition, and organic matter turnover (OMT) in grassland ecosystems. However, AGB allocation in different litter and excretion patches and its specific effects on decomposition and organic matter turnover remains unclear. We conducted a two-year grazing experiment involving yak in an alpine meadow of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, in order to examine the AGB allocation in five litter and excrement patches [i.e., litter patch (L), dung patch (D), litter and dung patch (L + D), litter and urine patch (L + U), and litter, dung and urine patch (L + D + U)] and its effects on decomposition and organic matter turnover. L had the highest AGB allocation (2159.4 kg ha−1), while D had the lowest one (145.1 kg ha−1). The allocation coefficient was the highest for L + U (0.84) and lowest for L (0.2). L and L + U had the highest digestion coefficient, which was significantly greater that of other patches. Daily decomposition rate was the highest for L + D + U (0.02 g 10 g−1 d−1), and lowest for L (0.009 g 10 g−1 d−1). Decomposition mass was the highest for L (327.4 kg ha−1 a−1) and lowest for D (2.5 kg ha−1 a−1). Organic matter turnover was higher for L and L + D than other patches. L + U had the highest intake allocation (83.8

Abstract Dryland ecosystem stability is increasingly threatened by amplified precipitation variability, nitrogen (N) deposition, and grazing pressure. While these drivers independently alter grassland structure, their interactive effects on the critical diversity‐productivity relationship remain poorly understood, particularly under contrasting precipitation regimes. Through a 3‐year split‐plot experiment (four grazing intensities × N addition) in a Loess Plateau steppe, we examined how interannual precipitation variability modulates the effects of grazing and N on the coupling strength between diversity (species richness, SR) and productivity (peak aboveground biomass, ANPP). Three key findings emerged: First, SR–ANPP coupling was strongly precipitation‐dependent: low grazing with N enhanced their synergy in wet years, whereas drought combined with heavy grazing triggered severe decoupling. Second, functional group asynchrony drove these dynamics: ephemeral forbs amplified SR responses to wet years, whereas drought‐tolerant grasses stabilized ANPP but accelerated SR collapse in dry years. Third, soil pathways mediated the coupling dynamics: precipitation and soil C‐N pools facilitated coordination, while grazing‐induced increases in bulk density exerted counteracting effects. Our CDS (Climate‐Disturbance‐Soil feedback) framework demonstrates that moderate grazing optimizes precipitation responsiveness when combined with strategic N inputs, offering actionable thresholds for maintaining coupled ecosystem functions under climate extremes.

Lycium barbarum is a promising high-quality woody forage, with crude protein concentration up to 30% and rich in secondary metabolites. This study investigated the effects of L. barbarum inclusion into an alfalfa-tall fescue mixture on in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), total gas production (TGP), fermentation characteristics, production of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), and global warming potential (GWP). Three cultivars, ‘Ningqicai (NQC) No.1’, ‘Ningqi (NQ) No.9’, ‘Qixin (QX) No.2’, were included at 4%, 8%, and 12% levels of the substrate with 7 replicates. After 72 h of incubation, the highest IVDMD among the three cultivars was observed at 4% compared with the control group. Although TGP and GWP at 4% inclusion were comparable to the control across all three cultivars (P > 0.05), they exhibited a quadratic increase (P < 0.05) with higher substitution levels for ‘NQC No.1’ and a quadratic decrease (P < 0.05) for ‘NQ No.9’. These variations corresponded with the productions of CO2 and CH4, and ammonia nitrogen (AN) and volatile fatty acids (VFA). For ‘QX No.2’, CO2 and CH4 production, the acetate to propionate ratio, and GWP were significantly lower than the control at the 12% level (P < 0.05). L. barbarum inclusion increased N2O production across all treatments (P < 0.05). Overall, 4%, 8%, and 12% were suggested potential for ‘NQC No.1’, ‘NQ No.9’ and ‘QX No.2’, respectively, which increased IVDMD and fermentation characteristics, and reduced CO2, CH4, and N2O productions. These findings suggest that L. barbarum can be used as a novel woody forage for ruminants, offering high degradability and low GWP at optimal inclusion levels.

Sustainable grazing management in salinized meadows requires balancing ecological conservation with livestock production, yet the soil-mediated mechanisms underlying these trade-offs remain unclear. Through a four-year controlled rotational grazing experiment with Simmental cattle across four stocking rates (0, 0.66, 1.33, and 2.66 cattle ha⁻1), we integrated vegetation, livestock, and soil data with structural equation modeling to identify key soil mediators of ecosystem trade-offs. Aboveground biomass of community (AGB), shannon–wiener index, temporal stability of community (TSC) and community asynchrony (CAS) all peaked at 1.33 cattle ha⁻1. TSC was negatively correlated with average daily gain of livestock (ADG) across all grazed treatments (P < 0.01). Grazing directly increased soil electrical conductivity (EC), which enhanced ADG but suppressed AGB. Grazing duration elevated soil total phosphorus (TP), which promoted AGB but compromised TSC. Soil moisture (SM) enhanced species diversity, AGB, and TSC but suppressed ADG, whereas CAS promoted ADG. Random forest analysis identified TP, EC, and SM as the key predictors. Although 0.66 cattle ha⁻1 induced strong soil‑ecosystem synergies, a medium stocking rate of 1.33 cattle ha⁻1 was optimal, simultaneously maximizing plant productivity and community stability while minimizing phosphorus‑driven trade‑offs. Our results identify soil EC, TP, and SM as the three key mediators of grazing impacts. Sustainable management of salinized meadows should focus on mitigating salinization, optimizing phosphorus availability, and conserving soil moisture. A stocking rate of 1.33 cattle ha⁻1 is recommended as the optimal practice to preserve plant diversity and promote synergistic ecosystem functioning.

Seasonal forage scarcity and the resulting grassland-livestock imbalance severely constrain the sustainable development of animal husbandry on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). In response, we propose a conceptual ‘Type-Temporal-Spatial’ coupling framework to systematically optimize forage supply structures, operationalized through two engineering approaches: the “Crop-Livestock” Engineering (temporal coupling) and the “Agriculture-Grassland-Assisted Livestock Engineering” Engineering (spatial coupling). To contextualize this framework, we construct a heuristic ‘ideal-type’ sequence tracing the evolutionary trajectory of “Pasture Wisdom”—from traditional nomadism (Wisdom A) to rotational grazing (Wisdom B), system coupling (Wisdom C), digital intelligent ranching (Wisdom D), and periodic intelligent intervention (Wisdom E). We clarify that this sequence serves as a conceptual framework for analyzing management paradigm shifts, rather than a deterministic historical trajectory. Our analysis reveals that while System Coupling (Wisdom C) effectively balances regional supply and demand, it relies heavily on external material inputs, may lead to considerable energy dissipation. In contrast, the Intelligent Ranch mode (Wisdom D) offers a pathway to “internal integration” through precise digital management. However, due to ecological, infrastructural, and socio-technical lags, a complete transition to Wisdom D is not immediately feasible; thus, the system will remain in a long-term transitional phase characterized by the symbiosis of Wisdom C and D. Finally, we propose a vision of “Periodic Intelligent Intervention” (Wisdom E). In this paradigm, technology acts as a temporary external stabilizer, intervening cyclically to reduce ecosystem disorder or degradation risk when illustrative degradation thresholds (e.g., NDVI drops) are breached, and withdrawing to allow natural resilience to govern upon recovery. It should be emphasized that this process does not represent a universal, linear path of development. Different pastoral areas may remain at the same stage for extended periods or may combine multiple stages simultaneously. This framework provides a conceptual basis for achieving a low-dissipation, efficient, and sustainable pastoral ecosystem on the QTP.

The pratacultural ecosystem is a vital global food production system and the most extensive ecological barrier. Its responses to environmental and anthropogenic disturbances exhibit complex nonlinear dynamics. However, a unified framework to quantify these dynamics is still lacking. Hereby, we propose the life response curve (LRC) for pratacultural ecosystems. LRC describes the dynamic trajectory of the system along gradients of influencing factors as a three-stage process, including an adaptation stage, a response stage, and a stable stage. These stages are delineated by three key thresholds: the adaptation point (AP), optimum point (OP), and saturation point (SP). Based on the relationship between the initial and final states of the system, LRC defines four response patterns: over saturation (SP = OP > AP), surplus saturation (OP > SP > AP), equal saturation (OP > AP = SP), and deficit saturation (OP > AP > SP). The relationships among the three thresholds enable quantitative characterization of ecosystem resistance, resilience, and stability. The LRC is characterized by nonlinearity, a threshold group, irreversibility of the response process, and asymmetry around the optimum point. To validate the theoretical predictions of the LRC, we used the relationship between community aboveground biomass (AGB) and species richness (SR) as a response indicator. Field experiments were conducted along a precipitation gradient across four typical grassland types in China. The results showed that the relationship between AGB and SR changed regularly along the precipitation gradient. Positive correlation was observed in the desert steppe. A hump-shaped relationship appeared in the typical steppe. A negative correlation was found in the shrub grassland and subtropical grassland. These patterns correspond to the adaptation, response, and stable stages of the LRC, respectively. They are governed by the synergistic effects of resistance, resilience, and stability, and effectively validate the four response patterns proposed by the LRC. By proposing a dynamic model that includes initial stability, perturbation adaptation, threshold-driven transition, and a novel equilibrium state, the LRC overcomes the limitations of the classical three-threshold theory. This framework provides a theoretical foundation for adaptive grazing management, early warning of grassland degradation, and ecological restoration practices.

Context: Stable forage production in integrated crop-livestock systems is difficult to achieve, especially as climate variability increases. Objective: This study tested whether rotational grazing can improve the resilience of integrated pasture by stabilizing forage productivity and quality, and investigated the underlying mechanisms. Methods: In a six-year field experiment, we compared rotational grazing with hay harvesting in a system that combined annual cereals with a perennial grass-legume mixture. We measured stability, asynchrony, and the integration effect for dry matter yield, crude protein, metabolizable energy, and food equivalent units. Results: Rotational grazing significantly increased the stability of system productivity and quality. The integrated system demonstrated synergistic stability, with integration effects ranging from 4% to 29% for spatial stability and 7-16% for temporal stability under grazing. This synergy was link to grazing-induced compensatory coupling between the two pasture types, which enhanced their functional complementarity. Structural equation modeling indicated that grazing enhanced stability mainly through indirect pathways mediated by component asynchrony and compensatory coupling. Grazing also modified the traditional yield-quality trade-off, a quadratic relationship under haying (consistent with the dilution effect) was absent under grazing. Conclusions: Rotational grazing stabilizes productivity of the integrated systems by promoting component complementarity. This mechanism improves drought resistance, resolves the yield-quality trade-off, and generates synergistic stability beyond component expectations. Our results offer a quantitative basis for designing resilient grazing systems and support rotational grazing as a climate-adaptive practice for sustainable forage production.

IntroductionTemperate grasslands are essential for sustainable ruminant production, yet their seasonal stability and nutritional balance are increasingly threatened by climate shifting. While high-sugar ryegrass (HSG) cultivars and grass-legume mixtures offer solutions to these constraints, their integrated performance across productivity, quality, and stability dimensions requires holistic evaluation.MethodsThis study conducted a field experiment in Aberystwyth, UK, employing a two-factor design with five grass components (three HSG cultivars, a tri-mixture, and a standard control) and two sowing modes (pure grass vs. white clover mixtures). Across nine harvests, we assessed temporal dynamics in dry matter (DM) yield, community composition, and nutritive value. Additionally, the Coupling Coordination Degree, food equivalent unit (FEU), and food equivalent unit productivity (PFEU) were comprehensively evaluated as independent indices to quantify trade-offs and synergies.ResultsThe pure-sown HSG cultivar AberMagic (AM) maximized early-season DM yield (9144.48 kg·ha-1) but experienced significant mid-season declines. Conversely, grass-clover mixtures mitigated this “summer slump” via temporal niche differentiation, significantly improving yield stability and biological weed suppression (grass weeds< 0.5%). Nutritional analysis revealed a physiological trade-off: pure HSG stands delivered superior energy density through elevated water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC), whereas mixtures provided a more balanced nutritional profile, significantly increasing late-season crude protein (CP) to 22.20%–28.05% and reducing neutral detergent fiber (NDF).DiscussionManagement models must align with specific agronomic goals. Pure AM is the premier choice for intensive systems prioritizing maximum total output. For long-term grazing requiring a stable feed supply, the AberAvon (AA) and white clover (WC) mixture is optimal due to its exceptional late-season recovery and excellent synergistic performance across indicators. Furthermore, the consistent underperformance of standard varieties underscores the absolute necessity of utilizing improved traits. Synergizing the ecological resilience of multi-species mixtures with the improved traits establishes an optimal framework for sustainable and highly coordinated forage systems.

Advancing plant phenomics requires linking high-resolution phenotypic data to plant performance under environmental stresses like grazing. However, how intrinsic biological factors, specifically individual developmental stage, mediate phenotypic trade-offs in response to management remains poorly quantified. Using a phenomics approach on the dominant grass Stipa bungeana within a two-decade grazing experiment, we integrated multi-year, individual-level trait data to dissect the effects of grazing season (cold/warm), intensity (light/moderate/heavy), climate, and developmental stage (proxied by basal diameter) on vegetative and reproductive tiller phenomes. We show that warm-season grazing increased tiller production, whereas cold-season grazing simplified phenotypic correlation networks. Notably, developmental stage was the dominant driver of vegetative growth and individual biomass, while reproductive investment was primarily governed by external drivers (climate and grazing intensity). Path modeling revealed that developmental stage indirectly enhances sexual reproduction by fueling vegetative investment, jointly determining final biomass. This study suggests that individual developmental stage as a potential internal integrator of grazing signals, reshaping phenotypic architecture. Our findings provide a phenotype-driven framework for precision grassland management. By advocating for the monitoring of developmental stage composition, we bridge phenomics with sustainable practices, enabling dynamic grazing strategies that optimize the balance between productivity and ecosystem resilience.

Upland Soil Cluster Gamma (USCγ) is a key high-affinity aerobic methanotroph driving atmospheric methane oxidation in grassland soils; however, it has never been obtained in pure culture, and its metabolic processes remain largely unknown. Here, we reconstructed a USCγ metagenome-assembled genome (MAG) containing the complete pmoA gene from desert grassland soil in northwestern China, designated USC_AKS. At the site, USCγ accounted for 9.83% of the microbial community in the 10-20 cm layer. BLASTn of its 16S rRNA gene against the NCBI database (excluding uncultured/environmental sequences) showed 93.03% similarity to the non-methanotroph Thioalkalivibrio sulfidiphilus HL-EbGr7 (order Chromatiales). The closest match among named species was an uncultured bacterium (JN672117) at 97.86% similarity. Its pmoA shares 96.18% similarity with the original USCγ-defining sequence. Phylogenomic analysis placed USC_AKS and seven other USCγ MAGs into a monophyletic group of three subclades, distantly related to culturable Type I methanotrophs. Their genomic average nucleotide identity values are all below 95%, confirming eight distinct species. Like other USCγ MAGs, USC_AKS encodes a complete pmoCAB operon, an XoxF-type methanol dehydrogenase, and enzymes for formaldehyde oxidation to CO2. However, it lacks key ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) cycle genes encoding 3-hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (hps) and 6-phospho-3-hexulose isomerase (phi). The serine cycle also appears incomplete, as these MAGs lack hpr, the gene encoding hydroxypyruvate reductase. Moreover, none encode Rubisco, ruling out the Calvin-Benson-Bassham CO2-fixation pathway. Consequently, the metabolic characteristics of USCγ-particularly its carbon assimilation pathway-remain enigmatic, and obtaining pure cultures or enriched consortia is likely the only route to resolving this mystery.

Seasonal forage scarcity and grassland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) significantly limit the productivity of Tibetan sheep and threaten the sustainability of local pastoral systems. Stellaria chamaejasme L. (S. chamaejasme), an alpine native herb rich in plant secondary metabolites (PSMs), may regulate ruminant nutritional metabolism, but its feeding effects on Tibetan sheep remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate how varying dietary levels of S. chamaejasme affect Tibetan sheep. Through a controlled feeding trial, we systematically assessed its impact on growth, nutrient digestion, nitrogen and energy utilization, and methane(CH4) emissions. The experiment involved the selection of 32 healthy, similarly-sized one-year-old male Tibetan sheep, which were then randomly divided into four groups. The basal pasture diet was supplemented with 0, 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg BW of S. chamaejasme, respectively, over a 45-day trial period. The results showed that dry matter intake (DMI), nitrogen(N) intake, and gross energy (GE) responded quadratically to S. chamaejasme supplementation (P < 0.05), with peak values observed at 100 mg/kg BW.This group showed a 34% increase in nitrogen retention (RN) compared to the control group, along with the highest energy utilization efficiency and the lowest CH4/DMD (Digestible Dry Matter) ratio. Methane energy (CH4-E) loss declined linearly with increasing supplementation (P < 0.001). Residual feed intake (RFI) and apparent digestibility of organic matter (OM), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), ether extract (EE) also showed quadratic responses (P < 0.05), with the lowest RFI value found in the H group. No statistically significant differences were observed in average daily gain (ADG) or feed conversion ratio (FCR) among the groups. In summary, 100 mg/kg BW improved DMI, RN, and energy efficiency, whereas 300 mg/kg BW most effectively reduced RFI but exerted inhibitory effects on intake. This study suggests that S. chamaejasme has the potential to serve as a functional forage resource during the cold season on the QTP, contributing to enhanced nutrient utilization efficiency and the promotion of sustainable grassland livestock farming.

The seasonal forage-livestock imbalance poses a critical challenge to sustainable pastoralism on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP), where excessive livestock numbers and widespread grassland degradation have led to systemic energy deficits and diminished ecosystem functionality. This imbalance exacerbates forage shortages, particularly in winter, threatening both herder livelihoods and ecological stability. To meet rising livestock demands while ensuring long-term pasture resilience, it is essential to replenish forage resource deficits and strengthen coordination mechanisms that enhance system coupling across multiple dimensions. This study developed an integrated multidimensional framework to address these challenges through three key strategies: (1) type coupling, achieved by combination of annual and perennial legumes with grasses to maximize their yield (1D); (2) temporal coupling, optimizing forage availability by combining mowing of cultivated pastures with rotational grazing in natural pastures to ensure sufficient winter supplementary feed (2D); and (3) spatial coupling, improving regional forage distribution by strategically locating production zones and minimizing transport distances across the vast QTP (3D). We identified that the combination of annual/perennial and legume/grass forages in cultivated pastures enhanced type coupling (the degree of coordinated coupling can reach as high as 69.56, 56.85, and 49.66 between the first, second, and third harvests), with optimal configurations maximizing the benefits of winter supplementary feeding (compared to the summer season, its degree of coordinated coupling was approximately 4 points higher). We proposed a feasible strategy for maximizing inter-regional forage coupling by considering the forage deficit on the QTP and the supply resilience of adjacent regions. By synthesizing these approaches into a cross-scale model, this research provided a comprehensive conceptual framework, empirical data, and theoretical foundations for mitigating forage-livestock imbalances and promoting sustainable pastoral systems on the QTP.

Alpine meadows provide essential ecosystem services, yet their responses to grazing management remain largely evaluated from a community-level perspective, leaving the mechanisms linking plant population strategies, interspecific interactions, and community stability unresolved. Here, we initiated a long-term seasonal yak grazing experiment on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau since 2009 and conducted field observations in 2021 and 2022 to investigate how seasonal grazing regulates population-level functional strategies and community assembly processes. We found that long-term grazing induced contrasting adaptive strategies between grasses and forbs: grasses enhanced vertical growth and sexual reproduction, whereas forbs shifted toward lateral growth and asexual reproduction. During the growing season, grazing-mediated trait differentiation promoted resource complementarity and maintained competitive balance between grasses and forbs. During the non-growing season, however, grazing increased the competitive advantage of grasses by expanding their resource acquisition capacity and niche breadth. Overall, seasonal grazing weakened grasses dominance, enlarged forbs niches, and enhanced community structural stability. These findings reveal that long-term Seasonal grazing does not simply suppress dominant species, but by altering plant functional strategies and competitive relationships, it brings about a redistribution of resources within the community, thereby enhancing its stability. Our study provides a mechanistic framework for understanding how grazing regimes regulate alpine meadow biodiversity and stability under global environmental change.

Aims Seed rain and the soil seed bank are essential resources for the reproduction and regeneration of grassland vegetation. However, the effects of seasonal rotational grazing-the most common type of grassland management/utilization worldwide-on the regulatory mechanisms of the structure and composition of seed rain and soil seed banks and their relationship with aboveground vegetation are still unclear.Location We conducted a 3-year (2020-2022) study of yak seasonal rotational grazing in an alpine meadow on the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.Methods We investigated the characteristics of temporal (different years) and spatial (different seasonal pastures) variations in species richness and density of the aboveground vegetation, seed rain, and transient soil seed bank. The similarities between seed rain and soil seed bank and aboveground vegetation composition were also compared.Results We found that seasonal rotational grazing significantly impacted the renewal of the aboveground vegetation, seed rain, and the density of the soil seed bank of the alpine meadow. During the warm season (seed-setting period, mid-June to late July), livestock grazing reduced both the richness and density of seed rain species and interrupted its supplementation of the soil seed bank and thus was detrimental to seed reproduction and renewal of alpine-meadow plants. Within the warm-season paddocks, prolongation of the grazing utilization time gradually decreased the density of the upper-layer (0-5 cm) transient seed bank, whereas the density of aboveground vegetation gradually increased. Moreover, grazing led to significant differentiation between the composition of aboveground vegetation and seed rain/soil seed bank, resulting in low similarity between those three categories.Conclusions Warm-season grazing is a potential driving force for the shift in aboveground vegetation reproduction mode from sexual (i.e., seeds) to vegetative in alpine meadows. We recommend excluding grazing during the seed-set stage, allowing grazing during the seed maturation period (mid-August to late September), and implementing appropriate rotational grazing among seasonal paddocks as part of an effective management strategy for alpine meadows on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Improving water productivity is paramount for sustainable agriculture in arid regions. While rotational grazing is a common practice, its system-specific impacts on a suite of water productivity (WP) metrics, particularly irrigation water productivity (WPI), and its interplay with partial factor productivity of nitrogen (PFPN) remain poorly quantified. To investigate the effects of grazing on the resource use efficiency of grassland in inland arid region, we conducted a six-year grazing experiment on pastures featuring annual cereals (barley, wheat, rye) and a perennial alfalfa-tall fescue mixture, in the Hexi Corridor, Gansu Province, China. We demonstrated that rotational grazing consistently and significantly enhanced both WP and WPI, with relative increases ranging from 5.4% to 173.4% compared to hay harvesting in annual and perennial sown pastures. Concurrently, PFPN increased between 5.5% and 100.0%, with annual pastures showing greater year-to-year variability and perennial pastures demonstrating more consistent gains. More importantly, the pathways of grazing effects were system-dependent. In annual pastures, grazing enhanced resource capture by optimizing canopy architecture, whereas in perennial pastures, it primarily buffered climate stress to protect nitrogen utilization, a process closely linked to water use. Multivariate statistical modeling reveal that grazing fundamentally synchronized PFPN and WP, strengthening their coupling. Our findings highlight the rotational grazing as a key management strategy to co-enhance water and nitrogen productivity, providing a novel pathway to optimize agricultural water use in sown pastures of arid regions.

Anthropogenic structures like fences are typically viewed as barriers that impede animal movement, but their cascading effects on the dispersal and diversity of other organisms remain a critical knowledge gap. This study introduces and tests the Fence Interface Effect, a hypothesis positing that by modifying herbivore foraging movements, fences create localized biodiversity hotspots. We aimed to understand the patterns, mechanisms, and consequences of this movement-driven phenomenon on belowground communities. The study was conducted along a 23-year-old fence separating grazed and ungrazed paddocks in a typical steppe ecosystem. We established transects parallel to the fence and collected soil and plant samples at precise distances (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 m) on both sides. Plant communities were assessed by functional group. Soil bacterial communities were characterized using 16 S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We used linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to model diversity patterns along the distance gradient and employed a partial least squares path model to elucidate the mechanistic pathways linking livestock movement restriction, plant functional groups, abiotic factors, and bacterial diversity. We discovered a significant Fence Interface Effect: soil bacterial richness, Shannon diversity, and functional potential peaked sharply at the fence line (0 m) and decayed with increasing distance into both grazed and ungrazed areas. Path analysis confirmed that this pattern was mechanistically driven by a cascade originating from altered livestock movement. This restriction facilitated the dispersal and establishment of specific plant functional groups (e.g., root-sprouting species, non-legume forbs), which, along with altered soil microclimate and mitigated physical stress, directly and positively influenced bacterial diversity. A significant portion of the bacterial community (53.8

Climate change and grazing are pivotal drivers of plant community composition and dynamics. While the roles of dominant species are well-documented, the ecological functions of highly diverse subordinate species remain inadequately understood. To address this gap, we conducted a field investigation across two grassland types (typical steppe and alpine typical steppe) in the eastern Eurasian steppe, each under distinct grazing regimes for 20-30 years. We focused on four common subordinate species (Leymus secalinus, Oxytropis racemosa, Heteropappus altaicus and Potentilla bifurca) to examine how grazing management (season and intensity) influences their key growth traits, trait trade-offs (e.g., height vs. canopy width), and subsequent effects on species diversity, functional diversity, and community biomass. Our results show that plant traits are shaped by the interaction of grazing regime and grassland type. Grazing season was the dominant factor regulating diversity: cold-season grazing significantly enhanced species richness and functional diversity, whereas warm-season grazing reduced them. In the typical steppe, subordinate species exhibited pronounced trait variation and clear trade-offs under heavy grazing. In contrast, harsh conditions in the alpine steppe constrained intraspecific trait variation within these subordinates. Importantly, subordinate species' traits strongly correlated with community properties in the typical steppe but were largely decoupled in the alpine steppe. This study underscores that grazing season is a critical lever for biodiversity conservation across grassland types, while grazing intensity should be adaptively managed according to local ecological context. Our findings offer a theoretical and practical basis for the adaptive management and sustainability of grassland ecosystems under global change.

Herbivore grazing plays a critical role in shaping grassland ecosystems, yet its effects on the interplay between plant and insect diversity remain poorly understood, particularly in typical steppe environments. To address this gap, we examined the impacts of large-herbivore grazing on plant and insect diversity and their interrelationships in a typical grassland ecosystem. Insect communities were sampled using trapping and sweep-net methods across warm- and cold-season grazing areas. Our results showed that grazing treatments did not significantly alter plant species diversity but reduced plant biomass and cover while increasing overall plant diversity. A total of 3733 and 3671 insect specimens were collected from warm- and cold-season grazing areas, respectively, representing 12 orders and 44 families. Insect community diversity was negatively correlated with grazing intensity, but positively correlated with vegetation density and plant diversity. Environmental factors, particularly temperature, also shaped insect community structure by directly influencing insect growth and development. As grazing intensity increased, vegetation density declined—a change that positively affected Orthoptera (grasshoppers) but negatively impacted other insect taxa, suggesting top-down effects. These shifts may alter species diversity, trigger complex ecological interactions, and ultimately modify ecosystem functions such as food web dynamics. Our findings highlight the importance of considering both biotic and abiotic factors in understanding grazing effects on grassland biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.