Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are important components of dryland soils that influence nutrient cycling and soil microbial activity, yet the depth-dependent responses of BSCs-associated microbial communities to long-term nitrogen (N) enrichment remain insufficiently understood. Here, we conducted a 13-year in situ N addition experiment (0–3.0 g N m⁻² yr⁻¹) in the Gurbantunggut Desert to compare bacterial and fungal communities between the moss BSCs layer and the underlying sub-biocrust soil (0–5 cm). Microbial communities exhibited pronounced vertical differentiation, with higher bacterial and fungal biomass and higher bacterial diversity in the BSCs layer than in sub-biocrust soils. Long-term N addition produced strong depth- and taxon-dependent responses. In the BSCs layer, bacterial communities were more sensitive to N addition than fungal communities, showing reduced niche breadth and migration-related parameters and a shift in community assembly from stochastic toward deterministic processes, accompanied by decreased co-occurrence network robustness. In contrast, fungal communities in sub-biocrust soils responded more strongly than bacteria, where N addition similarly promoted deterministic succession and reduced network robustness. Structural equation modeling further indicated that N influenced microbial communities in the BSCs layer via both direct effects and indirect effects mediated by changes in soil nutrient availability, whereas responses in sub-biocrust soils were entirely nutrient-mediated. Overall, these results demonstrate that long-term N addition induces depth-dependent changes in microbial community assembly and association network structure in BSCs-associated soils, highlighting the importance of accounting for soil depth and microhabitat heterogeneity when evaluating the impacts of N enrichment on dryland soil microbial communities and nutrient cycling.

Aridity represents a primary driver of desertification in semiarid and arid ecosystems, where soil microbial communities play pivotal roles in sustaining dryland ecosystem functions. However, the mechanisms by which biocrust-forming mosses influence bacterial community distribution and assembly under varying levels of aridity remain insufficiently resolved. In this study, we investigated the effects of moss crusts on bacterial community diversity and assembly processes across arid and semiarid regions of northern China using targeted metagenomic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. Our results show that moss crusts significantly enhance bacterial alpha-diversity while reducing beta-diversity relative to adjacent bare soil across all sampled regions. Moreover, bacterial communities associated with moss crusts exhibit a stronger propensity for stochastic assembly processes compared to those in bare soils, and display attenuated spatial turnover along the aridity gradient. In contrast, bacterial assembly in bare soils is jointly constrained by aridity and soil nutrient availability, whereas moss crust-associated communities are predominantly influenced by aridity. Notably, moss crusts elevate the aridity threshold under which bacterial community assembly transitions from stochastic to deterministic dominance, from 0.83 to 0.91, thereby extending the range of aridity conditions under which stochastic processes prevail. These findings highlight the critical role of moss crusts in enhancing the functional stability of desert ecosystems under drought stress, through modulation of regional-scale bacterial diversity, heterogeneity, and assembly dynamics, and support their strategic application in climate-resilient ecological restoration.

In desert ecosystems, biological soil crusts (biocrusts) play a crucial role in regulating soil nutrient dynamics and plant productivity. However, their cascading effects on aboveground biomass (AGB) mediated through soil-plant-microbe interactions remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we conducted a field experiment in the Gurbantunggut Desert of Central Asia, focusing on Erodium oxyrrhynchum, a dominant ephemeral species. We compared biocrust successional stages (from bare sand to moss crust) and ephemeral plant germination seasons (spring vs. autumn), assessing soil properties, plant traits, and phyllosphere microbial communities. Significant differences in leaf traits and AGB were observed between spring- and autumn-germinated plants across biocrust successional stages. Autumn-germinated plants exhibited higher AGB and more resource-acquisitive traits, whereas spring-germinated plants showed stronger stress tolerance but reduced AGB. AGB declined along the biocrust successional gradient (bare sand > algal crust > lichen crust > moss crust). Structural equation modeling revealed that soil moisture and nutrient availability were the dominant drivers of AGB, followed by phyllosphere microbial composition and plant traits. Biocrusts influenced plant biomass primarily through bacteria-mediated pathways that modified soil conditions. These findings highlight a trade-off between biocrusts-driven nutrient enrichment and water limitation, that collectively shape desert ecosystem productivity. They also provide a mechanistic foundation for predicting ecosystem responses to environmental change and for developing effective restoration strategies in arid regions.

Rising temperatures and increased droughts caused by climate change significantly reduce crop yields. Halophytes with different photosynthetic metabolism types have specific mechanisms for resistance to climatic factors. This study analyzed the morphophysiological, biochemical, and molecular-genetic mechanisms of tolerance and adaptation in halophytes, promising candidates for the restoration of salt affected lands in arid and semi-arid areas. Experiments under drought (D) and elevated temperature (eT), as well as their combined action (eT+D), were performed on Atriplex verrucifera M. Bied. (C3 plant) and Climacoptera crassa (M. Bieb.) Botsch. (C4-NAD-ME plant) with different types of photosynthesis. The activity of photosystem I (PSI) and the efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) were measured, along with the expression of genes involved in the light (psaA, psaB, psbA, CAB, Fd1, PGR5, and ndhH) and dark (rbcL, Ppc2, and PPDK) reactions of photosynthesis. The content of key carboxylating enzymes ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC), as well as the photorespiration enzyme glycine decarboxylase (GDC), were assessed. Plant growth and water-salt balance parameters, and activity of enzymes in the malate dehydrogenase (MDH) system nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(P))-MDH and NAD(P)-malic enzyme (ME) were also examined. A multivariate analysis of the experimental results revealed that A. verrucifera and C. crassa were both resistant to the effects of these climatic stressors. The tolerance mechanisms of both species were significantly influenced by a high level of photosynthetic plasticity. Nevertheless, differences were observed in the protective mechanisms underlying tolerance. In the C3 species, dissipative processes associated with non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of PSII and MDH system enzymes (malate valves) were activated, particularly under osmotic stress. The negative effects in the C3 plants were caused by the combined action of eT+D, which was compensated by an increased expression of rbcL, psaA, CAB, and especially PGR5, i.e., genes encoding Rubisco large subunit and PSI components: apoproteins A, chlorophyll a/b-associated protein (CAB) of light-harvesting complex, and proton gradient regulation 5 (PGR5) protein of the main pathway of cyclic electron transport (CET) around PSI. In C4 species, the protective MDH complex was expressed to a lesser extent, but activation of the C4 carbon-concentrating mechanism (CCM) and upregulation of PGR5 expression were observed, particularly under the individual action of the factors. Under the combined stress of eT+D, C. crassa exhibited a synergistic effect, where the increase in NPQ level and NAD-ME activity, as well as decrease in NADP-ME activity was less pronounced compared with the effect of singular factors. Comparative physiological, biochemical, and molecular analyses of how C3 and C4 species response to individual and combined climatic factors provide new insights into sustainable plant adaptation strategies in the face of global climate change. Considering the high nutritional value of these two fodder species, a technological approach could be developed to improve the productivity of salt affected lands.

Chenopodioideae plants are dominant components of desert ecosystems in arid regions of China and Central Asia and play key roles in maintaining ecosystem stability, while also providing valuable systems for understanding evolutionary and environmental adaptations of desert vegetation. However, at the family level, stoichiometric patterns across functional groups and plant organs in Chenopodioideae species remain poorly understood. We investigated 68 desert sites along a > 2000 km desert transect in northwestern China and collected leaf and stem samples from 39 Chenopodioideae species. After data preprocessing and standardization, 167 independent leaf units and 161 independent stem units were retained for subsequent analyses. We examined variation patterns and environmental drivers of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) across functional groups (C3 vs. C4 plants; trees, shrubs, and herbs) and organs (stems and leaves) at the community level. Compared with global and national datasets, Chenopodioideae plants exhibited lower N concentrations (8.846 mg g− 1 in stems and 15.768 mg g− 1 in leaves) but higher P (1.235 mg g− 1 and 1.497 mg g− 1) and K concentrations (23.758 mg g− 1 and 27.656 mg g− 1), suggesting potential nitrogen limitation. Significant differences in nutrient concentrations were observed among most functional groups and organs. Based on community-weighted means, leaves exhibited consistently lower P-K scaling exponents than stems across functional groups, suggesting enhanced K-related stress resistance. Stem and leaf N, P, N: P, and P: K exhibited homeostatic or strictly homeostatic patterns, supporting the “Stability of Limiting Elements Hypothesis”. Nutrient traits showed divergent responses along latitude, longitude, and aridity gradients, reflecting diverse adaptive strategies. Environmental drivers varied among traits and organs. Soil, climatic, and geographical factors jointly regulated nutrient concentrations and ratios through interacting pathways, with soil factors generally exerting stronger relative influences. Overall, our findings reveal differentiated yet partially convergent stoichiometric strategies among functional groups and organs, highlighting adaptive nutrient regulation mechanisms in arid desert ecosystems.

Understanding the mechanisms of biodiversity-driven functional stability is crucial for predicting ecological resilience. For desert ephemerals, whose aboveground biomass (AGB) is highly transient and volatile, the buffering mechanisms that sustain community stability under extreme environments have yet to be fully elucidated. In this study, four years of field observations (2021–2024) from the Gurbantunggut Desert were utilised. We used linear mixed-effects models (LMM), structural equation modelling (SEM), and Lotka–Volterra simulations to analyse AGB stability. The results showed that conservative traits drove AGB stability more strongly than acquisitive traits. Specifically, community-weighted mean leaf carbon (CWM.C) and root diameter (CWM.RD) provided the highest explanatory power. Mean annual precipitation (MAP) and species richness (SR) were the primary drivers, explaining 30.71% and 28.28% of the variance. In contrast, species evenness (Pielou) had a weak and direct negative effect (4.32%). SEM revealed that SR enhanced stability by increasing CWM.C and community-weighted mean specific leaf area (CWM.SLA), which subsequently drove stability (0.28 and 0.19). Furthermore, the stabilizing effect of species asynchrony (0.11) depended fundamentally on conservative root traits (CWM.RD, 0.17). Long-term simulations also confirmed that the facilitative influences of SR and conservative traits on stability persist, while competitive disturbances linked to acquisitive traits systematically diminish over time. These findings demonstrate that biodiversity enhances stability through two pathways. First, increased richness directly promotes trait-mediated asynchronous responses. Second, the selection of conservative traits establishes biological buffers against biomass fluctuations. This study highlights the synergistic roles of species richness and conservative functional traits in maintaining the stability of ephemeral plant communities, thereby advancing the theoretical understanding of biodiversity–stability relationships in desert ecosystems.

Mountain ecosystems offer natural gradients for exploring biodiversity patterns;however,the elevational patterns of plant species and phylogenetic diversity in the eastern Pamir Plateau remain poorly understood.As a biogeographical junction of the Central Asian mountain ranges,the eastern Pamir Plateau in China is geographically connected to the main part of the Pamir Plateau in Tajikistan,resulting in significant climatic and topographical heterogeneity and unique regional vegetation communities.In this study,we established 5 elevational transects and 91 plots(1500-4870 m)in the eastern Pamir Plateau to investigate the patterns and environmental drivers of plant diversity at both regional and local spatial scales.We examined diversity patterns and community composition using regression models and community structure analysis and quantified the relative importance of environmental factors using a random forest model.The results showed a distinct differentiation along elevation gradients,with overall plant diversity,herbaceous plant diversity,and phylogenetic diversity index increasing with elevation,whereas woody plant diversity declined.The phylogenetic structure indices(including net relatedness index and nearest taxon index)exhibited heterogeneous elevational responses,indicating that community assembly was jointly driven by environmental filtering and niche differentiation.Soil nutrients,water availability,and temperature were the primary environmental drivers,with soil factors predominantly influencing herbaceous plant diversity,while climatic variables dominated woody plant diversity.These findings demonstrate that plant diversity along elevational gradients of the eastern Pamir Plateau exhibits the characteristic patterns of a unique arid mountain ecosystem,where enhanced soil fertility and moderate moisture at higher elevations partly offset energy limitations,thereby maintaining plant diversity through functional convergence of closely related lineages.This pattern of biodiversity maintenance contrasts with the divergence-driven community assembly processes commonly observed in humid mountain systems.Overall,this study contributes to a better understanding of biodiversity maintenance in the eastern Pamir Plateau.Given its geographical continuity with the Pamir Plateau in Tajikistan,our findings can provide a basis for alpine conservation efforts across arid Central Asia.

Summary statement The adaptive significance of vestured pits in desert shrubs lies in their capacity to enhance drought‐induced xylem embolism resistance and, in the meantime, allow for relatively high hydraulic efficiency; however, this adaptation comes at a cost of increased susceptibility to freezing‐induced embolism.

Biological soil crusts regulate dryland soil stability, hydrology, carbon cycling, nitrogen inputs, phosphorus availability, and microbial functioning, but their climate-change responses remain scattered across disciplines and reporting formats. We integrated Scopus-based bibliometric mapping with an audited quantitative meta-analysis to evaluate research trends, treatment effects, and evidence gaps in biocrust climate-change studies. The bibliometric dataset included 597 Scopus records indexed up to April 2026, and the quantitative synthesis analyzed log response-ratio treatment-control effects separately from model-coefficient evidence. Because response variables were biologically heterogeneous, we avoided a single global pooled effect and analyzed response domains separately. Bibliometric results showed rapid growth, with China, the USA, Spain, and Germany among the leading contributors. Dominant terms included climate change, soil crust, cyanobacteria, moss, lichen, CO₂, soil moisture, and microbial community, indicating growing emphasis on climate-change, microbial, and ecosystem-process research. Quantitatively, weighted evidence was concentrated in phosphorus-pool responses and precipitation-frequency physiology. Phosphorus pools increased under warming-related treatments, especially labile non-occluded phosphorus, whereas precipitation-frequency contrasts were associated with lower photoprotective pigments, photosynthetic physiology, and pigment/photosynthetic capacity. Nitrogenase activity and N₂-fixation-centered responses were more variable and uncertain. Integrated evidence-gap analysis revealed that microbial-community and carbon-cycling themes were highly visible bibliometrically but underrepresented by variance-supported effect sizes. Overall, biocrust climate-change research is conceptually broad but quantitatively uneven. Future studies should standardize reporting of treatment-control means, variances, sample sizes, treatment intensity and duration, biocrust type or surface-cover state, soil depth, site conditions, and raw data to improve predictive synthesis and support biocrust-based dryland sustainability indicators.

Soil microbial biomass is a sensitive indicator of soil nutrient dynamics and biogeochemical processes. Fungi, as an integral component of microbial communities, play a dominant role in critical biogeochemical functions. Although the fundamental role of fungi in global carbon and nutrient cycles is widely recognized, their biogeographic distribution remains poorly understood. Therefore, systematically mapping the spatial distribution of global fungal biomass and its dominant drivers provides an essential scientific basis for understanding terrestrial ecosystem responses to global change. This study integrates observational data of phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) from 4,502 global sampling sites with 15 environmental factors, including space, climate, soil, and plants attributes. Using the XGBoost model with optimal predictive performance, we estimated fungal biomass carbon (FBC) stock at 0–30 cm soil depth (topsoil) and generated a high-resolution spatial distribution map. The results: (1) Global FBC stock in topsoil was estimated to be 14.07 Pg C (9.77–18.25, mean with 25% and 75% quantiles). Spatially, FBC stock was highest in high-latitude forests and peatlands in the northern hemisphere and lowest in mid-latitude desert regions. (2) Climate is the strongest predictor within the model framework regulating spatial FBC variability: negative correlation with mean annual temperature (MAT), positive with mean annual precipitation (MAP). (3) FBC exhibits nonlinear responses to environmental factors, with critical threshold values at: MAT (6.21 °C), soil pH (5.20), aridity index (0.95), and MAP (66.10 cm). (4) Sensitivity analysis indicates that under a 20% increase in future precipitation, global FBC stocks will significantly rise (p < 0.01), with the primary increase occurring in mid-latitude desert regions. The results not only provide critical parameters for global soil carbon pool estimation and enhance understanding of fungal-driven carbon cycling mechanisms, but also establish a basis for predicting soil carbon sink dynamics under climate change.

Drivers of non-native plant success in drylands are poorly understood. Here we identify functional differences between dryland native and non-native perennial plants and assess how biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic factors shape the success of the latter. On the basis of plant community and functional trait data from 98 sites across 25 countries, we report a total of 41 non-native plant species at 31 sites. Non-natives tend towards faster growth strategies than natives. Non-native plant richness is higher at sites with greater grazing pressure and under environmental conditions associated with higher soil fertility, decomposition and fungal richness-conditions that tend to occur in less arid regions-and lower where native plant and herbivore richness are greater. Non-native plant cover correlates positively with grazing pressure and negatively with native plant richness. Taken together, our results suggest that non-native plant success in drylands is facilitated when high grazing pressure coincides with elevated resource availability. Such context-dependence of non-native plant success and linkages with native plant and herbivore diversity highlight the need for managing grazing and conserving biodiversity across the world's drylands.

In drylands, biocrusts function as essential components of the nitrogen cycle and display pronounced sensitivity to external nitrogen inputs. Episodic rainfall events can mobilize dry-deposited nitrogen into shortterm pulse that influences nitrogen retention and transformation. However, the effects of short-term nitrogen pulse, commonly encountered in drylands, on biocrust nitrogen dynamics remain poorly understood. This study simulates rainfall-driven short-term nitrogen pulse to examine how varying pulse concentrations impact biocrusts nitrogen fixation, ammonia oxidation, and overall nitrogen balance under conditions of intensified nitrogen deposition after a 13-year nitrogen addition experiment in Gurbantunggut Desert. The nitrogen pulse sharply disrupted biocrusts’ nitrogen cycling. Both nitrogen fixation and ammonia oxidation rates declined precipitously immediately after the pulse. However, within 14–21 days, these rates rebounded to or even surpassed pre-pulse levels. This pattern reflects the biocrusts’ acute sensitivity to nitrogen perturbations, as well as their ecological resilience. Over 21 days, cumulative nitrogen fixation decreased by 47

Soil multifunctionality (SMF) and the soil quality index (SQI) are essential indicators of soil function, productivity, and health. Additionally, the spatial variability of soil multifunctionality (SVM) signifies soil heterogeneity. Biological soil crusts (Biocrusts) can affect these indicators. However, there is little information about the role of biocrusts in regulating the response of multiple ecosystem functions to climate change. We evaluated the relative importance of climate, soil environment, and biocrusts variables as drivers of SMF, SQI, and SVM at 74 sites in the Gurbantunggut Desert. Soil SMF, and SQI increase with the coverage of lichen and moss crust. Biocrusts index, SMF and SQI increase with an increase in the mean annual temperature. Biocrusts index, SMF and SQI increase first with an increase in mean annual precipitation (MAP)< 163 mm and then decrease. SVM display a significant decreasing trend with the increase of MAP. The structural equation model (SEM) demonstrate that the spatial distribution can significantly influence the biocrusts, soil SQI and SVM. Biocrusts has a significant positive influence on soil SMF (0.47)and SQI (0.31). Soil SMF has a significant negative effect on SVM (-0.50), and SQI (0.59) has a significant positive effect. We provide the first quantitative evidence that biocrust type and a 163 mm precipitation threshold govern SMF through opposing direct vs. indirect temperature pathways, offering a predictive rule-of-thumb for dryland management under climate change. The findings contribute decidedly to our understanding of the patterns and mechanisms driving SMF, SQI, and SVM in drylands, which is important for predicting changes in ecosystem function under climate change.

Grassland ecosystems play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle, yet the spatial patterns and drivers of soil organic carbon density (SOCD) across aridity gradients remain insufficiently understood. Here, we used the Carbon Density Dataset of China's Terrestrial Ecosystems (2010s) and applied random forest models to simulate SOCD at two soil depths (SOCD0-20 cm and SOCD0-100 cm) in arid and humid grasslands. We further quantified the contributions of environmental drivers and projected future SOCD dynamics under Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). Results showed that SOCD was lower in arid than in humid regions, but due to their vast extent, arid regions contained larger total soil carbon stocks. The 0-20 cm layer accounted for approximately 50% of the SOCD in the 0-100 cm profile. In arid regions, SOCD0-20 cm was mainly controlled by mean annual temperature and soil moisture, while SOCD0-100 cm depended on clay content and total nitrogen. In humid regions, SOCD0-20 cm was strongly influenced by temperature and NDVI, whereas SOCD0-100 cm was regulated by clay and nitrogen. Under future SSP scenarios, SOCD is projected to decline in arid regions but increase in humid regions, indicating an enhanced carbon sink potential. SOCD0-20 cm showed higher variability and lower stability than SOCD0-100 cm. These findings clarify the spatial heterogeneity and depth-dependent controls of grassland SOCD and provide a scientific basis for region-specific soil carbon management, contributing to China's "dual carbon" goals and sustainable grassland policies.

Tajikistan represents a core region of the biodiversity hotspot in Central Asian mountains and has exceptional vascular plant diversity. However, the species diversity of the country faces urgent conservation challenges. There has been a lack of a comprehensive and multidimensional assessment to inform strategic conservation planning. Therefore, this study integrated 4 key biodiversity indices including species richness (SR), phylogenetic diversity (PD), threatened species richness (TSR), and endemic species richness (ESR) to map species diversity distribution patterns, identify conservation gaps, and elucidate their effects of climatic factors. This study revealed that species diversity shows a clear trend of decreasing from the western region to the eastern region of Tajikistan. The central–western mountains (specifically the Gissar-Darvasian and Zeravshanian regions) emerge as irreplaceable biodiversity hotspots. However, we found a severe spatial mismatch between these priority areas and the existing protected areas (PAs). Protection coverage for all hotspots was alarmingly low, ranging from 31.00% to 38.00%. Consequently, a critical 64.80% of integrated priority areas fall outside of the current PAs, representing a major conservation gap. This study identified precipitation seasonality and isothermality as the principal drivers, collectively explaining over 50.00% of the diversity variation and suggesting high vulnerability to hydrological shifts. Furthermore, we detected significant geographic sampling bias in the public biodiversity databases, with the most critical hotspot being systematically under-sampled. This study provides a robust scientific basis for conservation action, highlighting the urgent need to strategically expand PAs in the under-protected southwestern region and to mitigate critical sampling gaps through targeted data digitization and field surveys. These measures are indispensable for securing Tajikistan’s unique biodiversity and achieving the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3 (“30×30 Protection”).

This study investigates the phylogenetic placement and taxonomic status of the Central Asian endemic genera Autumnalia, Fergania and Kafirnigania-small genera historically regarded as close allies of Ferula. Using genome skimming, we extracted DNA from limited leaf specimens and de novo assembled complete plastid genomes and nrDNA (ETS + ITS). These new data were analyzed together with 25 published Ferula plastid genomes, complemented by morphological and anatomical examinations of mericarps from 15 Ferula and related taxa. The mericarp anatomy revealed that key diagnostic characters previously used to delineate the three genera fall entirely within the continuum of variation observed in Ferula. Specifically, the defining features of the revised Ferula include heteromorphic umbels (with central bisexual and lateral staminate/polygamous flowers), strongly dorsally compressed mericarps with broad wings, filiform ribs, and a diagnostic vitta configuration of 1 to several in vallecula and 2 to several on the commissure. Phylogenetically, all three genera are deeply embedded within Ferula in both nrDNA and plastid-based trees, though topological incongruence between the two datasets suggests a complex history involving both hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting. Based on these findings, taxonomic revisions are proposed to subsume these genera within Ferula.

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are photosynthetic soil-surface consortia that stabilize dryland soils, regulate hydrological fluxes, support nutrient cycling, and promote ecosystem recovery. However, inoculation often performs inconsistently because propagules must withstand desiccation, ultraviolet radiation, erosion, transport stress, and repeated wet–dry cycles before functional cover develops. This review evaluates encapsulated carrier-based bioformulation as a microbial delivery strategy for biocrust inoculants. It compares six platform families: dripping ionic gelation, reverse ionic gelation, spray drying, complex coacervation, emulsion or layer-by-layer systems, and capsule, pellet, or seed-ball approaches. Evidence is classified into three levels: direct biocrust delivery studies, close dryland restoration analogues, and transferable microbial encapsulation evidence from biocontrol, probiotic delivery, environmental biotechnology, and agricultural bioformulation. The synthesis supports platform matching rather than a universal carrier. Alginate beads provide the strongest direct support for mixed or fragile biocrust inocula because mild aqueous gelation can accommodate complex propagules and create hydrated microsites. Capsules and pellets offer advantages for handling, microsite placement, delayed release, and co-delivery with seeds or amendments. Spray drying appears more suitable for robust cyanobacterial or algal starter cultures than for intact mixed fragments, whereas reverse ionic gelation, coacervation, emulsion-derived systems, and multilayer coatings remain transferable design concepts. Representative direct studies report controlled-condition establishment within weeks and more than 70

Against the backdrop of continuously increasing global nitrogen (N) deposition, the changes in photosynthetic carbon (C) allocation patterns of desert plants and their underlying mechanisms affecting soil C sequestration remain poorly understood. This study selected two representative species from desert ecosystems: the non-vascular moss Syntrichia caninervis and the vascular ephemeral plant Erodium oxyrhinchum as research subjects. Three N deposition levels were implemented: 0 (N0), 10.0 (N10), and 30.0 kg N ha−1 a−1 (N30), combined with 13C stable isotope labeling technique, to systematically investigate the effects of N deposition on plant photosynthetic C allocation and soil C sequestration. The experiment demonstrated that: (1) Aboveground 13C content in both species decreased significantly with increasing N input (P < 0.05); (2) N deposition significantly promoted photosynthetic C transfer to soil, with soil 13C allocation increasing from 0.8

Dryland biodiversity-productivity relationships remain poorly resolved. Specifically, the environmental conditions governing the shift between complementarity and mass ratio mechanisms remain unclear, limiting the effectiveness of restoration and management strategies. To address this gap, the aim of this study was to investigate the geographical patterns of diversity and biomass production in herbaceous communities along a 2100-km precipitation gradient in North China. We studied how α- and β-diversity affect community-wide productivity using linear mixed-effects models and piecewise structural equation models, along with rolling-window change-point analyses. In arid regions, biomass productivity was primarily driven by interspecific niche complementarity, where higher functional diversity (FD(α)) enhanced resource-use efficiency. However, in semi-arid regions, productivity was regulated by the mass ratio effect, specifically through the traits of dominant species, including community weighted mean height and specific leaf area, as these species exploited broader resource spectra with increasing water availability. A critical mechanistic shift occurred at a mean annual precipitation (MAP) threshold of ∼168 mm (95% CI: 152-171 mm; p < 0.001). Below this threshold, productivity was driven by diversity-mediated complementarity and stress tolerant strategies. Conversely, as MAP surpassed 168 mm, the system transitioned to mass ratio control, coincident with a shift toward competitive strategies. Overall, our study provides empirical evidence to guide dryland management: prioritising the maintenance of functional diversity in arid communities, while emphasising dominant-trait optimisation (plant height and specific leaf area) in semi-arid communities to maximise aboveground biomass.