Advances in Immunology have led to the understanding that the immune system is not only involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases but also plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis and tissue repair. It mediates interactions between the organism and dietary as well as environmental antigens, supports pregnancy, and enables coexistence with the microbiota, highlighting its role as an integrative system of the body. This review examines the term immunome in both narrow and broad senses, describes key achievements of the Human Immunome Project, and discusses the advantages of this approach for studying the immune system. Initially, the term immunome referred to the repertoire of rearranged antibody genes, as well as T- and B-cell antigen receptors (TCR and BCR). The AIRR-seq technology has been developed for the collection and analysis of adaptive immune receptor repertoires. Knowledge of TCR and BCR repertoires can be applied to the development of modern vaccines against highly dangerous pathogens, rapid vaccine design in response to emerging pathogens, and the creation of personalized vaccines for elderly individuals and specific patient groups. An example of successful application of immunome research in the narrow sense is the development of a Russian drug for the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. With substantial advances in immunology and biotechnology, the concept of the immunome has expanded. In its broader definition, the immunome includes not only immunocompetent cells, their receptors, and the molecules they produce, but also nonimmune cells and molecules involved in regulating immune responses, as well as the microenvironment in which immune reactions occur. Studies identifying changes in immune cell phenotypes, receptors, transcripts, cytokines, and their associations with disease activity or subtype provide valuable insights. However, their fragmented nature complicates the identification of the pathogenic role of individual factors. Comprehensive analysis of the immunome facilitates the understanding of immunopathogenesis, the discovery of biomarkers for various diseases, patient stratification, and personalized therapy selection. The extreme complexity of the immunome and its internal interactions necessitates the use of advanced mathematical modeling, bioinformatics, computational tools, and rapidly developing artificial intelligence technologies.

Ending of COVID-19 pandemic does not exclude subsequent breakthrough infections caused by SARS-CoV-2 mutant strains. The rate of SARS-CoV-2 mutations increased with emerging omicron strain and exceeds those of the influenza virus. It remains unclear what IgG antibody levels are able to protect against new mutant SARS-CoV-2 strains, and how long the immune protection will last. The objective of this study was to monitor the maintenance of humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 viral antigens over 4 years after the infection. Thirty-two adult reconvalescents after COVID-19 were annually examined for humoral and cellular immunity markers to the SARS-CoV-2 S protein. Humoral immunity was assessed by ELISA; cellular immunity was evaluated by expression of CD107a on CD8hi lymphocytes after recognition of S protein antigens. A four-year observation of a group of patients who recovered from COVID-19 in 2020 (SARS-CoV-2, Wuhan strain) and were in contact with a novel, freely circulating mutant VoCs showed that, 1 year later, all subjects retained the IgG antibodies to S protein, mainly the IgG1 subclass, but the antibody avidity index barely exceeded 50%. After a breakthrough infection caused by the omicron strain, the level of IgG antibodies to S protein increased significantly, along with sufficient increase of antibody avidity. The IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 antibodies to S protein occured in the spectrum of subclasses. The level of specific IgA decreased 1 year after the disease against their level after the primary disease. However, it was significantly increased to 4-5 PR after breakthrough infections. Cellular immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was detected in all subjects at 1 year after the primary disease. After repeated infection with the omicron strain, it increased significantly and remained at this level for the next year. By 4 years, it decreased to the level that was a year after the disease. Hence, humoral and cellular immunity to S protein does not fade away, but continues to persist, maturate, being maintained at a sufficient level. Upon exposure to a new VoC, it allows to endure such a meeting either asymptomatically, or as a mild clinical infection. In view of frequent mutations in the S protein, the role of T-cell responses in anti-infectious protection seems to increase significantly. When developing new vaccines, one should rely on development of cellular immunity.

Measles, rubella and mumps are viral infections that can be prevented with highly effective vaccines. Recently, the incidence of measles and mumps has increased in many countries, involving highly immunized populations. The aim of the study was to assess measles, rubella and mumps humoral immunity in healthy people of different ages and compare these data with measles incidence in same area during the same time period. The serum samples from 713 conditionally healthy residents of different ages from Moscow and the Moscow region with an unknown vaccination history and from 700 patients with measles collected on the 4th-5th day after onset of rash were examined. Humoral immunity was determined by ELISA using the kits from Vector-Best (Russian Federation) and Euroimmun (Germany). It was found that in the group of 1–5-year-old subjects, the seropositivity rate was below 60%. Seroprevalence in groups over 6-year-old subjects against rubella fluctuates at the level of 87–94%, mumps — 72–83%. The most unstable situation was observed in humoral immunity against measles virus. In the group of 6–13-year-old subjects, seroprevalence increased to 79% followed by decline to 49.5% in group of 18–30-year-old subjects. The subsequent increase in seropositivity to 88.12% in the group over 51-year-old subjects was significantly lower than the calculated population immunity level (95%). Among measles patients in 2024, children and adolescents accounted for 54.32%. Comparison of measles incidence with the measles seronegative level in the same age groups revealed a clear pattern: the more seronegative were subjects, the higher measles incidence was in this group. In a similar study on measles incidence in 2013, all children and adolescents responded to the infection with a primary immune response, and among adult patients, a secondary immune response was detected in 12–18%. In 2024, among children and adolescents with measles, 9–12% responded with a secondary immune response, and in adult groups, the proportion of secondary response reached 44%, indicating that individuals vaccinated in childhood but who lost measles antibodies during life actively contribute to measles cases. Vaccination of seronegative grades 10–11 adolescents is necessary.

The COVID-19 pandemic has ended, but SARS-CoV-2 continues to actively circulate and mutate in the human population. In this regard, it is important to understand for how long post-infectious and post-vaccination immunity may last and how effectively established immunity could act against new mutant SARS-CoV-2 strains. The aim was to study humoral and cellular immunity in a group of COVID-19 convalescent subjects within 3 years after the primary infection. The longitudinal study included 38 adults aged 23–72 years with PCR-confirmed mild or moderate COVID-19 in the second half of 2020. Within three-year follow-up after the onset, the subjects were examined every 6 months for the level of humoral and cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 antigens. The parameters of humoral immunity were assessed by enzyme immunoassay using “SARS-CoV-2-IgG quantitative-ELISA-BEST” kits (Vector-Best JSC, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation) for S-protein and “N-CoV-2-IgG PS” (Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation) specific to the N-protein. Cellular anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunity was analyzed by evaluating surface CD107a expression on CD8high lymphocytes stimulated with the SARS-CoV-2 S- or N-antigens. It was shown that the dynamics of antibody levels against SARS-COV-2 antigens depends on antigen (S- or N-protein) type, antibody class (IgG or IgA) as well as individual contact history with new SARS-CoV-2 strains. The dynamics of cytotoxic CD8highCD107a+ lymphocyte percentage is moderately positively correlated with that of the corresponding anti-S or N antibody levels. At the same time, change in the levels of both humoral and T-cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 S- or N-protein antigens are weakly negatively correlated with each other. A strong positive correlation was found between changes in the anti-S IgG antibody level and avidity. Avoiding the anti-S IgG neutralization due to frequent mutations of new SARS-CoV-2 strains leads to induced new primary immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 antigens along with the activation of existing responses formed to previous coronavirus strains. The study of immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 antigens allows to predict the persistence of high SARS-CoV-2 anti-S antibody and T-cell response levels.

The pandemic of a new coronavirus infection that has lasted for more than 3 years, is still accompanied by frequent mutations in the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 and emergence of new virus variants causing new disease outbreak. Of all coronaviral proteins, the S and N proteins are the most immunogenic. The aim of this study was to compare the features of the humoral and T-cell immune responses to the SARS-CoV-2 S and N proteins in people with different histories of interaction with this virus. The study included 27 individuals who had COVID-19 once, 23 people who were vaccinated twice with the Sputnik V vaccine and did not have COVID-19, 22 people who had COVID-19 and were vaccinated twice with Sputnik V 6-12 months after the disease, and 25 people who had COVID-19 twice. The level of antibodies was determined by the enzyme immunoassay, and the cellular immunity was assessed by the expression of CD107a on CD8high lymphocytes after recognition of SARS-CoV-2 antigens. It was shown that the humoral immune response to the N protein was formed mainly by short-lived plasma cells synthesizing IgG antibodies of all four subclasses with a gradual switch from IgG3 to IgG1. The response to the S protein was formed by short-lived plasma cells at the beginning of the response (IgG1 and IgG3 subclasses) and then by long-lived plasma cells (IgG1 subclass). The dynamics of antibody level synthesized by the short-lived plasma cells was described by the Fisher equation, while changes in the level of antibodies synthesized by the long-lived plasma cells were described by the Erlang equation. The level of antibodies in the groups with the hybrid immunity exceeded that in the group with the post-vaccination immunity; the highest antibody content was observed in the group with the breakthrough immunity. The cellular immunity to the S and N proteins differed depending on the mode of immune response induction (vaccination or disease). Importantly, the response of heterologous CD8+ T cell to the N proteins of other coronaviruses may be involved in the immune defense against SARS-CoV-2.

According to the WHO data, the incidence of measles is now in the cyclic increase phase. The non-vaccinated subjects, like as persons who have previously received one or two doses of measles vaccine are involved in the epidemic process. The purpose of our study was to determine the immunological pattern in the groups of measles patients of different age in areas with high incidence of infection. To determine the immune response type in measles patients, qualitative and quantitative indices of IgM and IgG were used, detected by the following ELISA test-systems: VectoMeasles-IgM (JSC “Vector-Best”, Russia); Anti-Measles Viruses ELISA (IgG) and Avidity Anti-Measles Viruses ELISA IgG (Euroimmun, Germany). The serological study of 1893 patient allowed to determine the primary and secondary types of immune response. In 72.64% of the patients with primary immune response, the serum samples contained low-avidity IgG at a concentration of 0.45 (0.22- 0.74) IU/mL. In the group with a secondary immune response, high-avidity antibodies were detected at a concentration of 24.28 (21.59-27.4) IU/mL. The antibody levels in secondary type of response was 54-fold higher than IgG values in the first group (p 0.05). In the group with primary immune response, the ratio of children ( 1 to 14 years) and adults (18 to 70 years old) was almost the same (49.6% and 47.56%). Appropriate values for children and adult cohorts with a secondary immune response were 2.12% and 96.53%, respectively (p 0.05). Among 46 teenagers (15-17 years old), 84.8% responded with a primary immune response to the measles virus. Thus, in the area with high-incidence of measles among patients of different age, the primary-type immune response was determined in 72.64%, and secondary-type, in 27.36%. We have found that in the patients with a secondary type of immune response group, the proportion of children and teenagers was 27.8 times lower than among adults, thus indicating to high efficiency of vaccination in pediatric population. At the same time, the results of studies among measles patients with primary-type immune response, both children and adults, suggest some “gaps” in the vaccine prevention program.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) affect more than 6.8 million people. The key factor in the immunopathogenesis of these diseases is the intestinal wall infiltration by various immunocompetent cells and their proinflammatory cytokine production. AIM: To compare the levels of 14 cytokines in the coproextracts of patients with IBD with various disease activities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The examined cohort comprised 30 children with CD, 33 with UC, and 20 healthy children (control group). UC and CD were diagnosed based on generally accepted clinical and endoscopic criteria. The concentrations of 14 cytokines (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-25, IL-31, IL-33, IFN-γ, and TNF) in aqueous-salt coproextrates were determined using the multiplex method (MagPix, BioRad, USA). RESULTS: The levels of all studied cytokines were significantly increased in all sick children, even in remission, compared with the control group. The concentration of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, and IL-17F) consistently decreased with the decrease in disease activity in the coproextracts of patients with CD and UC. Furthermore, the IL-22, IL-33, and IL-10 levels increased as the inflammation activity decreased. CONCLUSIONS: The lack of normalization of cytokine levels in remission raises the question of the need for further study of IBD immunopathogenesis and the search for new therapeutic approaches.

Most techniques for evaluation of T-cell immunity are laborious and unsuitable for routine laboratory diagnostics, thus encouraging researchers to look for accessible and reproducible tests. The purpose of our study is to compare three methods aimed for evaluation of cellular immune response levels to the SARS-CoV-2 viral antigens in patients who have been ill and vaccinated against a new coronavirus infection. We have examined 26 persons who experienced mild or moderate COVID-19 (group 1); 19 people vaccinated twice with Sputnik V, who did not have clinical COVID-19 (group 2); 21 subjects who had COVID-19 and were twice vaccinated with Sputnik V (group 3), and 14 persons who had COVID-19 twice (group 4). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated by gradient centrifugation. The first tested technique was performed as follows: the mononuclear cells were incubated with the S-protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and stained with fluorescently labeled antibodies. The percentage of CD8highCD107a was counted by means of BD FACS Canto II flow cytometer. When assessed by the ELISpot method with “Human IFN-γ ELISpot” kit, IFNγ production was stimulated by SARS-CoV-2 S-protein, or a mixture of SARS-CoV-2 protein peptides in the “Corona-T-test” kit. There were no significant differences in the levels of CD107a expression on CD8high cells between the groups 1, 2, 3, and 4, as well as in amounts of IFNγ producers against SARS-CoV-2 S-protein when using “Human IFN-γ ELISpot” kit. Production of IFN was significantly lower in group 3 (hybrid immunity), i.e., 317.29±19.04 pg/ml compared to groups 1 and 2 (post-infection and post-vaccination immunity), i.e., 454.95±20.32 and 470.77±26.24 pg /ml, respectively. The relative level of IFNγ -producing cells in group 2 was higher (22.34±3.77) versus 16.83±2.35 in group 1, and 15.46±1.83 in group 3, whereas the relative levels of IFNγ did not differ in these groups. Stimulation with full-length S-protein showed a significant reduction in the number of spots in group 4 (breakthrough immunity), i.e., 30.59±2.29 vs 58.97±4.47 in group 3. Stimulation with a mixture of SARS-CoV-2 peptides in group 4 vs group 3 revealed a significantly increased number of IFNγ -producing cells (86.72±7.20 versus 69.38±5.53) and higher IFNγ production (991.25±65.18 pg/ml versus 760.76±50.70 pg/ml). Appropriate relative values were as follows: 10.30±2.77 versus 8.61±2.66, and 68.10±9.41 versus 48.35±8.15, respectively. The results of three methods for evaluation of cellular immune response correlate positively with each other, but at different significance levels.

A successful vaccination implies the induction of effective specific immune responses. We intend to find biomarkers among various immune cell subpopulations, cytokines and antibodies that could be used to predict the levels of specific antibody- and cell-mediated responses after measles–mumps–rubella vaccination. We measured 59 baseline immune status parameters (frequencies of 42 immune cell subsets, levels of 13 cytokines, immunoglobulins) before vaccination and 13 response variables (specific IgA and IgG, antigen-induced IFN-γ production, CD107a expression on CD8+ T lymphocytes, and cellular proliferation levels by CFSE dilution) 6 weeks after vaccination for 19 individuals. Statistically significant Spearman correlations between some baseline parameters and response variables were found for each response variable (p < 0.05). Because of the low number of observations relative to the number of baseline parameters and missing data for some observations, we used three feature selection strategies to select potential predictors of the post-vaccination responses among baseline variables: (a) screening of the variables based on correlation analysis; (b) supervised screening based on the information of changes of baseline variables at day 7; and (c) implicit feature selection using regularization-based sparse regression. We identified optimal multivariate linear regression models for predicting the effectiveness of vaccination against measles–mumps–rubella using the baseline immune status parameters. It turned out that the sufficient number of predictor variables ranges from one to five, depending on the response variable of interest.

Measles is a highly contagious, vaccine-preventable anthroponotic infection. Despite the policy of active measles vaccination for entire global population, measles has not completely disappeared, it wanes and waxes in outbreaks. It has been shown that not only the unvaccinated but also the vaccinated, which is quite understandable, subjects are involved in measles progression. The study was aimed at assessing features of the immune response in adult measles patients at rise in disease incidence upon its eradication. 1.158 blood sera from measles patients aged 18 to 70 living in Moscow and the Moscow region were studied by ELISA (Euroimmun, Germany). The vast majority of subjects were aged 1840 years comprising 72.36% cases. 69 sera collected at a later timepoint (1020 days from rash onset) were excluded and analyzed separately. According to anti-measles IgG and avidity level, the data were stratified as follows: group 1 with a primary type of immune response 582 sera (53.44%), not vaccinated in childhood; group 2 (secondary response) 446 sera (40.96%), vaccinated in childhood, but lost anti-measles antibodies; group 3 with intermediate level of parameters 61 sera. To clarify the type of immune response in group 3, an additional analysis of the spectrum of anti-measles antibody subclasses was carried out. It was shown that a mixed type of response was detected in this group: 31 subjects mainly had primary immune response, and 30 subjects secondary immune response. At the same time, 40 out of 61 subjects were vaccinated against measles 13 months prior to disease onset, i.e., it was overlapped on arising post-vaccination immunity. Thus, the previously identified trend towards the loss of post-vaccination immunity among older schoolchildren and young adults vaccinated in childhood who are involved in the epidemic process continues to worsen.

Alteration of microbiota composition is a trigger, and, sometimes, an etiological factor in the development of chronic skin diseases, e.g., psoriasis or eczema. Recognition of microflora by keratinocytes and immune cells leads to the production of antimicrobial peptides, chemokines and growth factors, which contribute to the differentiation of T lymphocytes to autoaggressive effector cells of Th1, Th17 and Th22 types that implement autoimmune inflammation in the psoriatic plaque. The aim of our work was to study the differences in the skin microbiota spectrum and the parameters of local immunity in capillary blood taken near the focus of inflammation in patients with autoimmune (psoriasis) and allergic (eczema) diseases compared with the parameters of healthy people. 24 patients with psoriasis (group 1), 20 patients with eczema (group 2) and 20 healthy adults (group 3) were examined. Biological materials were taken, i.e., the smears taken with sterile dry swab to the Amies transport medium with activated carbon, and capillary blood was taken in 2 microvets, 200 µL each) from the foci of inflammation on affected skin from the hands of patients, or from the fingers of healthy people. Inoculations of diagnostic media, microscopy with Gram staining and microbial identification were performed in a microbiological analyzer. Immunophenotyping of 22 subsets of mononuclear cells was performed by four-color staining of capillary blood with erythrocyte lysis and evaluation of subsets by a flow cytometer. Cytokines in blood plasma were determined by multiplex method. The spectrum of hand skin microflora of the group 3 was more diverse in the species composition. In patients with psoriasis and eczema, the coccal flora dominated, with a shift towards pathobionts in the microbiota spectrum. Activation of T and B cells, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 axis cytokines and cytokines – markers of epithelial cell damage (IL-25 and IL-33), as well as anti-inflammatory factors insufficiency were detected. Differences in changing parameters of the local immune status in patients with autoimmune (psoriasis) and allergic (eczema) diseases were revealed, thus reflecting the distinct features of immunopathogenesis in these diseases.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus caused the COVID-19 pandemic is related to the SARS-CoV-1 and MERS coronaviruses, which were resulted in 2003 and 2012 epidemics. Antibodies in patients with COVID-19 emerge 714 days after the onset of symptoms and gradually increase. Because the COVID-19 pandemic is still in progress, it is hard to say how long the immunological memory to the SARS-CoV-2 virus may be retained. The aim of this study was to study a ratio between humoral and cellular immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 S protein in COVID-19 convalescents. There were enrolled 60 adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 2 to 12 months prior to the examination. The control group consisted of 15 adults without COVID-19 or unvaccinated. Specific antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 virus were determined by ELISA with the SARS-CoV-2-IgG-ELISA-BEST kit. To determine the specific IgG and IgA subclasses, the anti-IgG conjugate from the kit was replaced with a conjugate against the IgG subclasses and IgA. Additional incubation with or without denaturing urea solution was used to determine the avidity of antibodies. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated by gradient centrifugation, incubated with or without coronavirus S antigen for 20 hours, stained by fluorescently labeled antibodies, and the percentage of CD8highCD107a cells was assessed on flow cytometer BD FACSCanto II. In the control group, neither humoral nor cellular immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was found. In the group of convalescents, the level of IgG antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 S protein varies greatly not being strictly associated with the disease duration, with 57% and 43% of COVID-19 patients having high vs. low level of humoral response, respectively. A correlation between level of specific IgG and IgA was r = 0.43. The avidity of antibodies increased over time in convalescents comprising 49.9% at 612 months afterwards. No virus-specific IgG2 and IgG4 subclasses were detected, and the percentage of IgG1 increased over time comprising 100% 612 months after recovery. 50% of the subjects examined had high cellular immunity, no correlations with the level of humoral immunity were found. We identified 4 combinations of humoral and cellular immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 S protein: high humoral and cellular, low humoral and cellular, high humoral and low cellular, and vice versa, low humoral and high cellular immunity.

Measles is a highly contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets, characterized by fever, intoxication and specific rashes on the skin and mucous membranes. Despite the availability of highly effective vaccines and many years of efforts by the world medical community with active immunization of the worlds population against this infection under the auspices of WHO, measles still remains a serious problem. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of measles infection in adults upon the wide range of lymphocyte subsets and blood cytokine profile in comparison with healthy controls. The venous blood samples from 50 adult measles patients aged 20 to 55 years, were taken 61 days after the onset of skin rash, being compared with blood samples from 50 healthy adults of similar age group. The 200 L plasma aliquotes resulting from spontaneous sedimentation of the formed elements in an Eppendorf tube were taken, frozen at -30 C and used within 3 months for the cytokine profile assays. 15 cytokines were tested by multiplex technique (MagPix, BioRad, USA). Mononuclear cells were isolated by gradient centrifugation and immunophenotyped using four-color staining by means of equipment and reagents from BD Biosciences (USA). In the group of measles patients, activation of innate immunity was revealed, i.e., the IL-1, IL-6, IL-23, IL-31 cytokines and TNF, which belong to early pro-inflammatory cytokines, were significantly increased. In measles patients, a significant increase in cytokines was found, suggesting active participation of epithelial cells in immune response to the measles virus. They produce danger signals (IL-25 and IL-33), inducing the development of adaptive immunity, activate their protective abilities via IL-17F production, and are involved in repair under the influence of IL-22. Some cells of adaptive immunity are infected with the measles virus and die, others actively respond to the viral infection and proliferate, thus leading to changing ratio of their subsets. Hence, the patients showed a significant decrease in T lymphocytes due to a decrease in CD4+ cells, an increased percentage of cells in senescent and exhaustion state, a significant decrease in TEMRO subpopulations, both among CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, and an increase in CD8+TCM. The levels of B cell subpopulations (Bm, B1, Breg) in measles patients did not differ from healthy ones, and the level of plasmablasts was significantly increased. The level of CD4+ lymphocyte subpopulations and production of their cytokine markers varied greatly. In the patient group, a shift in the type of immune response towards Th2 and Th17 was found, activation of Tfh and Treg was detected, and increased expression of HLA-DR and CD38 activation markers was found. In response to measles infection, there are several independent, multidirectional processes observed in the patients. On the one hand, the measles virus attacks epithelial cells of mucous membranes and skin and immunocompetent cells, exerting a cytopathic effect and leading to lymphopenia and selective decrease in various lymphocyte subsets. On the other hand, the measles virus initiates activation of both innate and adaptive immunity, thus causing production of the corresponding cytokines, expression of activation markers, and an increase in effector cell subsets. Better understanding of the immunopathogenesis of measles infection and associated immunosuppression will help us to improve vaccination outcomes against this infection and prevent measles-related mortality.

Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune skin disease with affected T-cell immunity. The interleukin IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 cytokine axis is a key to immunopathogenesis of psoriasis. Certain role of the IL-36 subfamily is shown in regulation of skin inflammation. Topically applied preparations are used to treat psoriasis. Our aim was to evaluate the treatment-related changes in the cytokine profile of venous and capillary blood collected close to the foci of psoriatic inflammation. Forty patients with psoriasis (mean age, 43.7 years), were examined. Group 1a (20 people) received local treatment with Mometasone, Group 1b (20 people) received topical gel containing an IL-36 receptor antagonist. Twenty healthy people (mean age, 46.6 years) comprised the control group 2. 200-μL aliquots of capillary blood were collected in a microvette with EDTA from the patients’ finger near to the lesion area. Venous blood (3 mL) was taken from the cubital vein to a vacuum tube with EDTA. The concentration of 15 cytokines in blood plasma was tested by the multiplex method (MagPix, BioRad, USA). Clinical effectiveness of therapy was assessed using the PASI and DLQI indexes. Upon completion of treatment (day 14), the PASI and DLQI indices were significantly decreased in both groups. On the 28th day, the PASI index in Group 1a returned to its original level, in group 1b it remained permanently reduced. Before treatment, the levels of all cytokines, except of IL-10, were significantly increased in capillary blood samples of patients with psoriasis compared to Group 2, and the levels of five cytokines were increased in the venous blood. In group 1a, the levels of IL-1, IL-4, IL-6, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-25, IL-33 were significantly decreased in capillary blood after 14 days, and only IL-17F, IL-21, IL-33 and TNF showed a decrease in the venous blood specimens. On the day +28, the concentrations of almost all cytokines returned to their original level. In Group 1b, on the 14th day, the levels of IFNγ, IL-1, IL-4, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-25, IL-33 were significantly decreased in capillary blood compared to altered IFNγ, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-33 in venous blood. On the 28th day, their concentration continued to decrease, or the level of these cytokines remained reduced, along with significant decrease of IL-6 in venous samples. Thus, the method for determining cytokine profile in capillary blood from the area of psoriatic lesions may be used for tracing the effects of therapy in psoriatic patients.

Topical glucocorticoids are conventionally used to treat psoriasis, but such treatment provides a short-term effect, and may cause various complications during long-term usage. A detailed study of the immunopathogenesis of psoriasis has made it possible to use bioengineered drugs that block the main cytokines. It has been shown that IL-36 plays an important regulatory role in pathogenesis of psoriasis. The aim of the study was to study therapeutic effect of patients with psoriasis using topical glucocorticoid hormone versus IL- 36 receptor antagonist (RAIL-36), with respect to clinical course of psoriasis and the subsets of mononuclear cells in venous and capillary blood taken close to the focus of inflammation. 16 patients with psoriasis (group 1a) received 0.1% mometasone cream for 14 days; 20 patients of group 1b received a gel containing 0.4% recombinant RAIL-36 for 14 days. Control group included 20 healthy adults. Treatment efficacy was assessed by PASI, DISHS and DLQI indices. 19 lymphocyte subsets and 3 monocyte subsets were assessed by four-color staining of whole capillary and venous blood with erythrocyte lysis using BD Biosciences (USA) technologies and reagents. It was shown that both drugs led to a decrease in the severity of the disease at the end of treatment. However, 2 weeks after the end of treatment in group 1a, the disease indexes nearly returned to the initial values. Meanwhile, the reduced index levels persisted 2 weeks later in group 1b. Significant deviations (more pronounced in capillary blood) were revealed for the levels of several leukocyte subsets in the psoriasis patients compared with healthy persons. As a result of treatment, we have revealed some changes in the levels of leukocyte subsets common to the two groups, and special differences for the two treatment options, that were more pronounced in capillary blood samples. Both medical preparations used are suitable for treatment of psoriasis.

The new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has become a global challenge to medicine and, in particular, laboratory diagnostics. The study of the antibodies’ level to SARS-CoV-2 can be used as a confirmation test in the diagnosis of a disease, but it becomes of paramount importance in assessing population immunity resulting from a disease or vaccination, as well as in selection of convalescent plasma donors. The kits developed in our country and abroad for detecting antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 virus differ both in the methods of testing and in the used coronavirus antigens to which the antibodies are directed. The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of five kits for the detection of IgG antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, based on different diagnostic methods. Serum samples from 137 COVID-19 convalescents and 166 donors of blood and its components were examined. The control group consisted of 50 blood sera collected at the beginning of 2019 and 19 sera collected in 2018 (before the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 virus) and stored at -70 °C. Testing was carried out in analytical systems: rapid test “COVID-19 IgM/IgG Rapid Test (Colloidal Gold)” (China), on an automatic immunochemical analyzer Abbott Architect™ i2000 and kit “SARS-CoV2-IgG” (Abbot, Chicago , IL USA), by the chemiluminescence method using an automatic analyzer of the CL series and kits of the “Mindray” company (China) “SARS-CoV-2 IgM” and “SARS-CoV-2 IgG” and by the enzyme immunoassay method on the kits of the companies “Diagnostic Systems” Ltd (Russia, Nizhny Novgorod) “DS-IFA-ANTI-SARS-CoV-2-G”, “Xema” Ltd (Federal State Budgetary Institution “National Medical Research Center of Hematology” of the Ministry of Health of Russia) “SARS-CoV-2-IgG-IFA” and “Vector-Best” CJSC (Russia, Novosibirsk)” SARS-COV-2-IgM-IFA-BEST” and “SARS-COV-2-IgG-IFABEST”. When comparing the results of testing 137 plasma samples on the Vector-Best and Mindray kits for IgG antibodies, 127 samples were positive, 7 samples were negative on both kits, the discrepancy was 2.2%. In the study of IgM antibodies, 32.1% were positive, and 52.6% were negative in both kits. The discrepancy rate was 15.3%. Out of 166 samples, 1 serum (0.6%) was negative in 5 kits. On the Mindray kit, IgG antibodies to the antigens of the SARS-CoV-2 virus were detected in 165 samples (99.4%), on Vector-Best – in 164 sera (98.8%), on Diagnostic systems – in 151 (90.96%), on Xema – in 154 (92.8%), and on Abbott – in 155 samples (93.4%). At the same time, 135 (81.33%) samples were positive in all kits, while 30 samples had discordant results (18.07%), and in 9 sera, specific IgG was not detected in 2 or more kits. ROC analysis revealed a high diagnostic value of all tested kits (AUC from 0.908 to 0.998), which indicates a high quality of the separation model of positive and negative samples (p < 0.001). With the cut-off set by the manufacturers, the sensitivity and specificity ranged from 82.8% and 93.3% for the Diagnostic Systems kit to 99.4% and 95.8% for the VectorBest kit. The calculated correlation coefficients were higher between kits with a similar composition of the antigen used in the kits; therefore, it is better to monitor the dynamics of antibodies by diagnostic kits from the same manufacturer.

Psoriasis is considered an autoimmune disease with a predominantly cellular mechanism for the development of disorder. Studies in immune pathogenesis of psoriasis were performed either in animal model, which is not just similar to humans, or the data were obtained in patients by means of skin window method, which is traumatic, or by examining venous blood. However, it is difficult to discern parameters of the local immune response in venous blood samples. We have attempted to find an adequate method which would be convenient both for the patient and for the researcher, in order to assess local immune processes occurring in the skin affected by psoriasis. We examined 20 patients with a verified diagnosis of psoriasis, the average age was 44.3 years. The control group included 15 healthy adults, with average age of 46.6 years. Capillary blood was taken by fingerprick, whereas, in psoriatic patients, the samples were taken near the psoriatic lesion at a final volume of 400 μL in two microvettes. Venous blood (3 mL) was taken from the cubital vein into a vacuum tube with EDTA. Clinical analysis of venous and capillary blood was performed in automated hematological analyzer. Immunophenotyping was performed by four-color staining of whole capillary and venous blood followed by lysis of erythrocytes. Cytofluorometry was performed using techniques and reagents from BD Biosciences (USA). Plasma cytokines were determined by multiplex approach (MagPix, BioRad, USA). Upon clinical analysis of blood, the difference between capillary and venous blood was not found, either in healthy group, or among patients with psoriasis. In healthy people, the subsets of mononuclear cells, did not differ between venous and capillary blood. The samples of capillary and venous blood in the patients with psoriasis showed significantly increased levels of double-positive lymphocytes (CD45RA+/CD45R0+), B lymphocytes and NKT lymphocytes (both for relative and and absolute values). A significant increase in the percentage of naive T lymphocytes, activated helpers (Thact) and Treg, as well as B1 cells and Breg, and a significant decrease in B2 lymphocytes was registered in capillary blood of the patients with psoriasis. In venous blood samples from psoriatic patients, only a significant increase in Thact, Treg, and Breg was revealed. In the capillary blood of patients with psoriasis, we found a significant increase in the levels of non-classical M2 monocytes and inflammatory Minfl monocytes, and a decrease in classical M1 monocyte levels; in venous blood of psoriatic patients, only an increase in inflammatory Minfl monocytes was revealed. In capillary blood, all the studied cytokines in psoriasis patients significantly exceeded the levels of corresponding cytokines in healthy controls, except of IL-10. The levels of this cytokine did not differ from healthy group. In venous blood, the levels of most studied cytokines in the group of patients with psoriasis did not differ from the group of healthy ones. Approximately two-fold increase was revealed for IL-4, IL-21, IL-23 and TNF. First, the subsets of mononuclear cells and the cytokine profile of capillary and venous blood of healthy people did not differ significantly. Secondly, our proposed method for determining the subsets of mononuclear cells and capillary blood cytokines profile from the area of psoriatic lesions may be used to monitor local immunity in the patients with psoriasis. This approach is significantly less traumatic than the skin window method and more informative than the studies of venous blood.

Introduction. The implementation of the WHO Measles Elimination Program has yielded serious results, but in recent years an increase in the incidence rate of this infection has been observed. In particular, according to the WHO, in 2019 vs. 2018 measles morbidity was elevated by 3-fold worldwide. While investigating measles outbreaks among patients, apart from unvaccinated subjects, a substantial group of adults vaccinated in childhood was distinguished. The aim of this work was to examine the characteristics of humoral measles immunity in adult measles patients as well as subjects after measles vaccination. Materials and methods. 50 adult measles patients aged 20 to 55 years were examined. In all patients, the diagnosis was confirmed clinically and by laboratory assays by detecting measles IgM antibodies. The second group consisted of 50 conditionally healthy seronegative age-matched adults, vaccinated with the live measles vaccine (Microgen, Russia). Peripheral blood samples were collected from the cubital vein in total volume of 4 ml on 6±1 day after the onset of rash in patients as well as 6 weeks after vaccination. Specific measles antibodies and their avidity were determined by ELISA using the commercial Avidity: Anti-Measles Viruses ELISA/IgG kit (Euroimmun, Germany). Results. It was shown that people aged 20—35 years more likely suffered from measles than elderly. And it was in this age group that healthy measles seronegative individuals were more abundant. Among vaccinees, 44% responded to vaccination with the primary type of immune response, and 56% responded with the secondary type, while among measles patients, 34% and 66% responded with the primary and secondary type, respectively, as follows from the spectrum of specific IgG subclasses and the antibody avidity assay. The secondary type of immune response indicates that these subjects were apparently vaccinated against measles in childhood, but lost with time long-lived plasma cells producing protective antibodies. While comparing the parameters of specific humoral immunity in groups with acute measles infection (day 6 from the onset of rash) and early convalescents (3 weeks after the onset of rash), it was shown that the level of specific IgG increased threefold in early convalescents (p 0.01) compared with those at acute phase. The level of specific IgA, on the contrary, decreased from 73.44 (69—75.3) Me/ml to 48.64 (45—56.4) Me/ml, but remained very high. At the same time, the spectrum of specific IgG subclasses shifted from primary immune response (high IgG3 and low IgG1) to secondary response (low IgG3 and high IgG1), which is typical for the response of emerging memory B cells.