Human norovirus (hNoV) is the leading global cause of acute gastroenteritis, imposing a substantial health and economic burden worldwide. Progress in understanding hNoV pathogenesis has been hindered by the lack of tractable small-animal models that recapitulate symptomatic infection. Although zebrafish larvae support hNoV replication, infection remains asymptomatic, limiting their utility for studying disease mechanisms and host-pathogen interactions. In this study, we report that the zebrafish embryo infection model, in which microinjection of hNoV at the early cell stage, resulted in robust systemic viral replication accompanied by overt pathological manifestations, including pericardial and renal edema, yolk and cranial opacity, and mortality by 3 days post-infection. Disease severity displayed marked individual variability and correlated closely with viral burden. Integrated multi-omics analyses, including bulk transcriptomics, untargeted metabolomics, and single-cell RNA sequencing, demonstrated that embryonic infection elicits a stronger and more coordinated antiviral response than larval-stage infection, while enabling widespread viral dissemination across diverse cell lineages. Approximately two-thirds of infected cells were derived from the nervous system or neural crest lineages, providing a potential mechanistic basis for the neurological complications occasionally reported in hNoV-infected patients. Furthermore, we identified a developmental stage-dependent role for extracellular vesicle (EV)-associated hNoV transmission: free virions mediated more efficient infection and higher symptomatic incidence in immunologically immature embryos, whereas EV-associated virions exhibited enhanced infectivity in more immunocompetent larvae. Together, these findings establish the zebrafish embryo as a versatile and accessible in vivo platform for studying symptomatic hNoV infection, reveal host maturity-dependent viral transmission strategies, and provide new opportunities for mechanistic studies and high-throughput evaluation of antiviral and vaccine candidates.

The increasing demand for safe, ready-to-eat sprouts highlights the need for effective and environmentally friendly disinfection methods. Curcumin is a natural compound with potent sonosensitizing properties, capable of generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) under ultrasound (US) irradiation to inactivate microorganisms. In this study, the combined effects of ultrasound and a curcumin-based emulsion labelled as curcumin-lecithin-propyl gallate-zein (CLPGZ) on the inactivation of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, and the growth performance of mung bean and pea sprouts were investigated. The results showed that a curcumin concentration of 0.17 mg/mL combined with 15 min of ultrasound treatment (345 W/cm2) achieved more than 99.5% bacterial reduction meanwhile maintaining a germination rate above 85% and producing the longest shoot length compared to other treatments. Physicochemical characterization confirmed that the CLPGZ emulsion remained stable over 60 days, with a consistently low polydispersity index of approximately 0.2. Beyond microbial inactivation, the combined treatment also significantly improved the nutritional and antioxidant profiles of sprouts, as reflected by increased reducing sugars, proteins, and antioxidant enzyme activities. In particular, relative to the control group, the combined treatment increased total phenolic content by 22.5% in mung bean sprouts and 45.8% in pea sprouts, with corresponding increases of 12.2% and 9.7% in DPPH radical scavenging activity (P < 0.05). In addition to reducing seed surface contamination, the treatment decreased wash water microbial loads to below the detection limit (< 2.0 log CFU/mL), underscoring its potential to reduce the risk of cross-contamination during postharvest handling. The integration of this food-grade sonosensitizing emulsion with ultrasound represents a practical approach for improving microbial safety and quality attributes in sprout processing.

Human noroviruses (hNoVs) are the leading cause of foodborne gastroenteritis worldwide, yet progress in infectivity-based studies has been hindered by the lack of robust virus purification methods that preserve infectivity. Here, we evaluated porcine gastric mucin (PGM)-coated magnetic beads as a sample preparation tool for concentrating and purifying infectious hNoVs from complex clinical and food matrices for use in two emerging infectivity models, human intestinal enteroids (HIEs) and zebrafish embryos/larvae. Using 18 hNoV strains across multiple genotypes, we observed variable recovery efficiencies (0.03–40

Citrus peel is a major agro-industrial by-product rich in bioactive metabolites, but batch-to-batch variation in antimicrobial activity limits its consistent valorization. This study developed a rapid machine learning-assisted spectroscopic approach to predict the antimicrobial activity of orange peel by-products. Fifteen citrus cultivars, including 10 sweet oranges and 5 mandarins, were analyzed using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy. Antimicrobial activity was classified into high- and low-activity groups, and five classification models were developed, including support vector machine, k-nearest neighbor, decision tree, naïve Bayes, and bagged tree algorithms. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy showed stronger predictive performance than Raman spectroscopy. The best ATR-FTIR model was SVM, achieving an accuracy of 0.91, sensitivity of 0.87, specificity of 0.95, precision of 0.93, and F1-score of 0.90. Its high specificity indicates a low risk of falsely selecting weak antimicrobial batches, which is critical for practical screening. In contrast, Raman-based models performed less effectively, with the highest accuracy of 0.59 from BT and the highest F1-score of 0.58 from SVM; the latter showed a sensitivity of 0.83 and a specificity of 0.23. Variable importance analysis identified spectral regions associated with functional groups related to phenolics, flavonoids, and carbohydrates as important contributors to antimicrobial prediction. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) further supported the spectral interpretation by showing that flavonoids, phenolic acids, and related metabolites were enriched in high-activity samples. These findings demonstrate that vibrational spectroscopy combined with machine learning can provide a rapid and scalable screening strategy for evaluating antimicrobial potential in orange peel by-products. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study provides a rapid screening approach to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of orange peel by-products using vibrational spectroscopy and machine learning. The method could help citrus-processing and food industries identify promising batches of citrus peel for value-added applications, such as natural antimicrobial ingredients or food safety-related product development, while reducing reliance on time-consuming bioassays.

This research investigated the extraction and functional characterization of novel umami peptides from bay scallop by-products and explored the molecular basis of their flavor-enhancing effects. The by-products were subjected to sequential enzymatic hydrolysis using alkaline protease AP200-A and flavor protease FF106, followed by multistep purification. Sensory testing revealed that fraction F2 exhibited the strongest umami intensity. Peptide identification using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) led to the detection of 65 potential umami peptides. Virtual screening subsequently identified three promising candidates: HELPRY, WDGRDGAVD, and AHELPRYG. Sensory evaluation and electronic tongue analysis demonstrated that all three synthetic peptides exhibited significant umami intensity and umami-enhancing effects, with detection thresholds ranging from 0.10 to 0.51 mmol/L and enhancement thresholds from 0.08 to 0.41 mmol/L. Notably, the detection thresholds were relatively low. To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying their taste, molecular docking and dynamics simulations were performed. The results showed that all three peptides formed stable complexes with the umami receptor T1R1/T1R3, with hydrogen bonding as the primary driving force. Key binding residues, including ASN150, SER158, LYS155, ASP219, PRO57, and ARG255, played critical roles in receptor recognition. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations confirmed stable binding to T1R1/T1R3, with binding energies ranging from -9.353 to -8.476 kcal/mol, and hydrogen bonding was identified as the predominant interaction. This study provides novel umami peptides from a sustainable source and elucidates their interaction mechanism with the taste receptor, offering a theoretical basis for the high-value application of shellfish by-products in the flavoring industry.

Microbial contamination could present a potential risk for cultivated meat industry. In this study, six microbial contaminants originating from the cell culture environment were identified, and WGS-based functional mapping suggested potential metabolic complementarity and ecological robustness among them. These isolates were assembled into a synthetic microbial community (SynCom) to simulate a “worse-case” contamination scenario during the production of cell cultured meat in contrast to single strain contamination. Within 11 tested antimicrobial peptides and proteins, the synthetic peptide 1018-k6 was identified as the most effective antimicrobial agent, showing a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 37.5 μg/mL against the SynCom. The long-term suppression assay demonstrated that 1018-k6 maintained complete microbial inhibition over a 14-day production cycle, even under exposure to high bacterial loads of 106 CFU/mL. Furthermore, real-time monitoring of cell growth and resazurin assay confirmed that the effective dose exerted no adverse effects on cell proliferation or metabolic activity. By bridging the gap from target identification to microbial intervention, this study provides a potential microbial barrier to protect long-term, animal component-free cellular agriculture.

Centralized school catering systems have expanded globally. While these systems offer logistical efficiency, cost control, and standardized management, they also concentrate microbial risks, as a single contamination event can affect thousands of students simultaneously. This opinion article synthesizes recent school meal-associated foodborne outbreaks and highlights structural vulnerabilities inherent to centralized production and distribution models. Current regulatory frameworks primarily emphasize nutritional quality, with comparatively fewer differentiated standards targeting microbial safety in centralized school catering. Emerging approaches, including smart sensing technologies and artificial intelligence-assisted predictive microbiology, offer promising tools to shift from reactive outbreak response toward proactive risk management. Given that centralized catering systems are unlikely to be reversed in modern societies, future governance frameworks must strike a careful balance between cost efficiency, quality, and food safety, while also ensuring transparency in public communication.

Human norovirus (hNoV) presents significant public health challenges due to its low infectious dose and environmental persistence. This study compared the inactivation efficacy of ultraviolet C irradiation at 254 nm (UV 254) and far-UVC radiation at 222 nm (UV 222) against four hNoV GII strains and two surrogate viruses, Tulane virus (TV) and bacteriophage MS2. A symptom scoring assay was developed to assess hNoV infectivity following microinjection into zebrafish embryos, being used in combination with reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), long-range RT-qPCR, and RNase-treated RT-qPCR. With a general laboratory setup of viruses being suspended in deionized water droplets in Petri dish, UV 222 irradiated at 7 and 70 mJ/cm2 was demonstrated with comparable, if not superior, performance in reducing hNoV infectivity and RNA integrity and was significantly more effective than UV 254 in damaging viral capsids. MS2 exhibited inactivation patterns similar to hNoVs, whereas TV was markedly more resistant to UV 222. The performance of UV 222 was consistent in inactivating hydrated viruses on both stainless steel and porcine skin surfaces. However, the efficacy of UV 222 was substantially more reduced when virus inocula were dried or mixed with simulated vomitus containing high levels of organic matter, compared with UV 254. No evidence of viral adaptation or persistent genomic diversification was detected by RNA sequencing and variant calling after six rounds of repeated sublethal UV exposures. Taken together, UV 222 can be regarded as a promising technology in surface disinfection for hNoV control while keeping safe for human exposure. We recommend it to be applied after surface cleaning and ideally on moist surfaces. IMPORTANCE:Human norovirus (hNoV), the main cause of foodborne illness and non-bacterial gastroenteritis, can be transmitted through human-to-human contact. Indirectly, food or food-related surfaces are readily contaminated by hNoV, completing the transmission route. So far, no standard cultivation tool is available for detecting viable hNoV, resulting in the challenges of evaluating inactivation effectiveness of various disinfection technologies, including UV 222 treatments. The significance of our study lies in attempts to quantify hNoV infectivity loss of four strains using zebrafish model during UV 222 and UV 254 treatments, together with the underlying antiviral mechanisms indicated by three different types of reverse transcription qPCR methods. In addition, the concerns over the possible emergence of variants were subdued by genome-wide sequencing results after consecutive UV exposures and passaging in vivo zebrafish model.

This study investigated the bactericidal effects of levulinic acid (LVA) and ultrasound against Listeria monocytogenes and analysed the corresponding metabolic response posttreatment via nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The results suggested that the combined LVA and ultrasound treatment affected amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, and osmotic and oxidative stress defense mechanisms in L. monocytogenes. This finding was supported by the reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay, which confirmed that the combined treatment intensified oxidative stress, leading to disrupted membrane integrity. To assess the broader antimicrobial efficacy of this combination and its application potential in food systems, the treatment was further evaluated on fresh strawberries using representative bacterial and viral surrogates. On fresh strawberries, the combined treatment reduced L. monocytogenes and all other tested bacterial groups to undetectable levels after washing (<2 log CFU g(-1)). Significant inactivation was also observed for Tulane virus and bacteriophage MS2 (P < 0.05). Additionally, the application of ultrasound and LVA improved the physicochemical quality of strawberries during storage and significantly enhanced their antioxidant enzyme activities. This study highlights the potential of this combined treatment approach as a promising disinfection and preservation method for strawberries.

The transmission of zoonotic pathogens through animal feed and raw materials underscores the critical need for effective antimicrobial interventions. Following the prohibition of formaldehyde in several countries, there remains a significant gap in suitable alternatives for mitigating microbial hazards in feed. This systematic review evaluates research published between 2015 and 2025, focusing on the efficacy of various classes of antimicrobial agents, concerning organic acids, phytochemicals, and oxidizing agents, in animal feed and raw materials intended for terrestrial animals. A total of 23 relevant articles were identified and analyzed. The review highlights organic acids as broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents capable of reducing the prevalence of bacteria, viruses, and molds in in vitro feed and in vivo trials. While comparative studies on bacterial contamination are limited, formaldehyde-based mitigants continue to outperform organic acid-based mitigants in controlling viral contamination. Preliminary evidence suggests that integrating phytochemicals with organic acids may enhance the antimicrobial efficacy. Additionally, natural mitigants such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB), bacteriophages, wheat bran, and lignosulfonates have emerged as promising candidates for pathogen control. Nonetheless, ongoing inconsistencies in the existing results remain evident among these mitigants, underscoring the need for stronger scientific evidence. We also noted that the systematic review did not identify any studies evaluating oxidizing agents as antimicrobial mitigants. This absence highlights a potential research gap and suggests that future investigations into oxidizing agents may be warranted to address the growing need for effective antimicrobial solutions.

Sulfite (HSO3-) is a common additive in food and traditional Chinese medicinal materials processing, yet overdosing endangers health, demanding an efficient detection method. Herein, we chosed the coumarin derivative as the fluorophore and incorporated electron-withdrawing groups, 2-thiobarbituric acid and barbituric acid, to synthesize fluorescent probes CADS and CADT. Both probes gave a pronounced HSO3- response in HEPES: cyan fluorescence switched on and the color changing from purple/pale purple to yellow. By comparison, CADS outperformed with 40 s response, pH 4-8 tolerance, superior photostability and anti-interference. Spectroscopic characterization experiment and quantum chemical calculation results indicated that the probe specifically identified HSO3- through a nucleophilic addition reaction and emitted fluorescence by inhibiting the internal conversion (IC) process. Furthermore, CADS was successfully applied to the quantitative detection of HSO3- in food and Chinese medicinal material samples and enabled fluorescence imaging of endogenous and exogenous HSO3- in MCF-7 cells and zebrafish.

Cronobacter sakazakii is an opportunistic foodborne pathogen known to cause severe neonatal infections. However, its subclinical effects on human health remain largely unexplored. Here, we report that intestinal colonization by Cronobacter is potentially correlated with human neurobehavioral alterations in the absence of bacterial translocation across host barriers. Analysis of fecal microbiota from the children in GUSTO cohort revealed that Cronobacter abundance was significantly and positively correlated with their emotional reactivity and affective problem scores, suggesting an association between gut Cronobacter colonization and emotional dysfunction. Using a zebrafish larvae model, we demonstrated that enteric colonization by C. sakazakii ATCC 25944 triggered a distinctive bending phenotype and locomotor instability, indicative of central nervous system (CNS) disturbance. Multi-omics profiling revealed upregulation of genes related to circadian rhythm (e.g., per2, nr1d1, nr1d2) and neuropsychiatric markers (hint1), alongside metabolic dysregulation involving lipid classes linked to neurodegenerative stress. Random mutagenesis coupled with whole-genome sequencing identified modifier variants in genes associated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis and fimbrial adhesion, which attenuated the neurotoxic phenotype. LPS isolated from wild-type C. sakazakii, but not from mutants, reproduced the CNS impairment phenotype, highlighting its crucial virulence role. Collectively, our findings provide the first evidence that enteric Cronobacter colonization may affect human emotional development via gut-derived LPS signaling, emphasizing its underestimated role in the gut-brain axis and neurobehavioral health.

ABSTRACT This study examined the food safety implications of a commercial Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) product by assessing its pathogenicity and impact on the microbiological quality of crops grown in hydroponic systems. B. thuringiensis B3 isolated from the product showed genomic similarity to the foodborne pathogen Bacillus cereus, as it possessed complete sets of enterotoxin-encoding genes (cytK, nheABC, and hblCDAB). Caco-2 cytotoxicity assay demonstrated in vitro cytotoxicity as B3 cell-free supernatant reduced cell viability at 20% (vol/vol). The food safety implications of Bt product treatment in hydroponic systems cultivating lettuce were monitored for 5 weeks with polymyxin pyruvate egg yolk mannitol bromothymol blue agar to enumerate B. cereus group populations. Throughout the cultivation period, B. cereus group populations were significantly greater in reservoirs and surfaces of treated systems than controls (P < 0.05), which demonstrated sustained elevation of B. cereus group populations associated with Bt product application. In contrast, the populations on edible lettuce parts remained at 3.46 ± 0.35 log CFU/g, which was insignificantly different from the control group (P > 0.05). Changes in the lettuce leaf microbiome composition and functions also appeared unlikely to compromise food safety. Overall, these results indicate that Bt product usage in hydroponics may increase system-wide B. cereus group, but the population levels in the edible parts remain below 5 log CFU/g, the threshold associated with diarrhea syndrome. Moreover, 16S rRNA gene analysis of the Bt product revealed the presence of non-Bacillus genera, emphasizing the importance of quality control measures for microbial plant-beneficial products.IMPORTANCESafety evaluations of biologically derived fertilizers and control agents are essential to ensure that crops grown in treated systems are safe for consumption. This includes an assessment of the production composition for contaminants, the potential of the intended organism to cause foodborne illnesses, and any effects on the microbiological quality of the crop. These considerations are especially critical in hydroponic systems, where the recirculating system can amplify the spread and persistence of applied products. In this study, we investigated the safety of a commercial Bacillus thuringiensis product due to its widespread use in agriculture and close genomic similarity to the foodborne pathogen Bacillus cereus. Our findings underscore the importance of considering the food safety implications when applying biological products in hydroponics and lay the groundwork for safety evaluations of these inputs in food production systems.

The valorization of food by-products offers a sustainable strategy to reduce waste and enhance food safety. This study developed a novel antimicrobial delivery system by modifying modified yeast cell particles (YCP) with betaine hydrochloride (BHC-YCP) for encapsulating pomegranate peel extract (PGPE), aimed at improving the microbial quality and safety of refrigerated salmon fillets. Confirmed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Salmonella, PGPE was successfully encapsulated into YCP and BHC-YCP using vacuum infusion. The YCP and BHC-YCP treatments significantly reduced Listeria monocytogenes on salmon fillets by 1.52 +/- 0.32 log and 1.93 +/- 0.30 log (P < 0.05) compared to the control group at the end of 8 days refrigeration storage (4 +/- 1 C-degrees). Salmonella was reduced to undetectable levels within 4 and 2 days, respectively by YCP and BHC-YCP treatments. From a spoilage perspective, YCP and BHC-YCP extended the microbial shelf life of salmon by 4 and 6 days, respectively. Moreover, the production of biogenic amines, including cadaverine, putrescine, histamine, and tyramine, was significantly retarded (P < 0.05) by the encapsulated PGPE treatments. This study highlighted the potential of integrating by-product valorization, encapsulation technology and antimicrobial innovations to advance sustainable food preservation.

Cultivated meat, produced using cell culture technology, is an alternative to conventional meat production that avoids the risks from enteric pathogens associated with animal slaughter and processing. Cultivated meat therefore has significant theoretical microbiological safety advantages, though limited information is available to validate this. This review discusses sources and vectors of microbial contamination throughout cultivated meat production, introduces industry survey data to evaluate current industry practices for monitoring and mitigating these hazards, and highlights future research needs. Industry survey respondents reported an average microbiological contamination batch failure rate of 11.2%. The most common vectors were related to personnel, equipment, and the production environment, while the most commonly reported type of microbiological contaminant was bacteria. These will likely remain prominent vectors and source organisms in commercial-scale production but can be addressed by a modified combination of existing commercial food and biopharmaceutical production safety systems such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), and Good Cell Culture Practice (GCCP). As the sector matures and embeds these and other safety management systems, microbiological contamination issues should be surmountable. Data are also included to investigate whether the limited microbiome of cultivated products poses a novel food safety risk. However, further studies are needed to assess the growth potential of microorganisms in different cultivated meat products, taking into account factors such as their composition, pH, water activity, and background microflora.

This study investigated the antiviral potential of exopolysaccharides (EPSs) from probiotic bacteria against human noroviruses (hNoVs). EPSs from Bacillus subtilis CU1, B. subtilis R0179, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299V were initially evaluated using Tulane virus (TV), a cultivable hNoV surrogate. Although EPSs reduced the cytopathic effects caused by TV infection, no clear dose-response relationship was observed. In contrast, the zebrafish model enabled testing of hNoV strains and revealed a distinct anti-hNoV GII.4 activity specific to EPS from B. subtilis CU1. This effect was virus genotype- and bacteria strain-specific: EPSs from B. subtilis R0179 and L. plantarum 299V showed no activity, nor did CU1 EPS affect hNoV GII.2 or GII.17. The major EPS fraction was identified as a levan composed of β-(2,6)-linked Fruf, which exhibited high binding affinity to hNoV GII.4 virus-like particles and P particles, confirmed by saliva-binding ELISA and bio-layer interferometry. Finally, B. subtilis CU1 was used to ferment carrot juice. The antiviral effect of EPS produced by B. subtilis CU1 in fermented carrot juice was validated, and the EPS yield was optimized accordingly. These findings highlight B. subtilis CU1 EPS as a promising anti-hNoVs agent and demonstrate carrot juice as a safe, cost-effective substrate for scalable production of functional probiotic EPSs.

Human norovirus (hNoV) presents significant public health challenges due to its low infectious dose and environmental persistence. This study compared the inactivation efficacy of ultraviolet C irradiation at 254 nm (UV 254) and far-UVC radiation at 222 nm (UV 222) against four hNoV strains and two surrogate viruses, Tulane virus (TV) and bacteriophage MS2. A symptom scoring assay was developed to assess hNoV infectivity following microinjection into zebrafish embryos, being used in combination with reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), long-range RT-qPCR, and RNase-treated RT-qPCR. With a general laboratory set-up of viruses being suspended in deionized water droplets in Petri dish, UV 222 was demonstrated with comparable, if not superior, performance in reducing hNoV infectivity and RNA integrity, and was significantly more effective than UV 254 in damaging viral capsids. MS2 exhibited inactivation patterns similar to hNoVs, whereas TV was markedly more resistant to UV 222. The performance of UV 222 was consistent in inactivating hydrated viruses on both stainless steel and porcine skin surfaces. However, the efficacy of UV-222 was substantially more reduced when virus inocula were dried or mixed with simulated vomitus containing high levels of organic matter, compared with UV-254. No evidence of viral adaptation or persistent genomic diversification was detected following repeated sublethal UV exposures. Taken together, UV 222 can be regarded as a promising technology in surface disinfection, especially for hNoV control, meantime keeping safe for human exposure.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are versatile biomolecules with unique properties, including specificity, stability, and ease of synthesis, making them promising candidates for bacteria detection in biosensors. This review explores the potential of AMPs as biorecognition elements, emphasizing their structural properties, interaction mechanisms with bacterial membranes, and their application in biosensing. AMPs offer advantages such as being less prone to bacterial resistance mechanisms and compatibility with various biosensor platforms, including optical and electrochemical sensors. Recent advancements in AMP design strategies, such as in-silico modeling and structural tailoring, in addition to immobilization techniques, are discussed, highlighting their role in enhancing AMP properties. Challenges and current research gaps affecting AMP efficacy in biosensors are critically examined and possible solutions are suggested and discussed. Future directions include the development of multiplexed AMP-based biosensors and integration into smart food packaging for real-time pathogen monitoring. By addressing current research gaps, AMPs could revolutionize bacterial detection methodologies across multiple fields, including medicine, food safety, and environmental monitoring.