Offshore wind farms are rapidly expanding across shallow shelf seas, yet their cumulative impacts on tidal hydrodynamics and transport pathways remain poorly constrained. Here, we quantify the hydrodynamic response of the southeastern North Sea to large offshore wind farm (OWF) arrays using the coastal circulation model FESOM-C with explicit resolution of individual turbine foundations. Two barotropic simulations were conducted: a reference case without turbines and a wind-farm scenario in which 700 monopile foundations, grouped into twelve wind-farm polygons, were directly represented in the computational mesh. An unstructured grid enabled sub-metre resolution ( 1.4 m) around individual monopiles while maintaining basin-scale coverage ( 2.34 & times; 10 10 m 2 ), allowing turbine-scale processes and regional responses to be resolved simultaneously. Comparative analysis reveals physically meaningful differences between the two scenarios, both within OWF areas and across the wider shelf. The presence of wind farms redistributes tidal kinetic and potential energy, with domain-averaged changes of approximately 1-2.5%, systematically attenuates current speeds within turbine clusters, and localises flow acceleration along farm peripheries. At the turbine scale, near-stagnant zones ( 1-10 m) and enhanced shear develop adjacent to monopiles and persist throughout the tidal cycle. Passive Lagrangian drifter simulations indicate that these flow modifications may reduce horizontal dispersion and enhance particle retention within and around wind farms, with implications for larval transport, sediment dynamics, and ecological connectivity. Our results suggest that offshore wind farms may act not only as local perturbations but also as regional modifiers of tidal circulation and transport pathways extending over several kilometres. The magnitude and spatial coherence of the response depend on turbine density and array configuration, indicating that wind-farm layout can influence the strength of cumulative hydrodynamic effects. These findings highlight the necessity of high-resolution, turbine-resolving models to assess and manage the large-scale environmental impacts of offshore wind development in shelf seas.

The Wadden Sea is a complex coastal system where sea level rise (SLR), tidal dynamics, and geomorphology interact non-linearly. Today, the functioning of coastal ecosystems and their services in this region, historically resilient to natural changes in sea level, is at risk due to climate change-induced SLR. This study investigates the changes in tidally induced transport pathways of passive tracers, while providing a comprehensive analysis of tidal inundation, asymmetry, and current velocities under different SLR scenarios projected for 2050. The Sylt-Rømø Bight, a semi-enclosed basin, serves as the study site. Using FESOM-C coastal ocean model with a Lagrangian tracking module on a high-resolution unstructured mesh (up to 2 m resolution in the intertidal zone), we simulate tidal dynamics under SLR scenarios based on projections under low (SSP1-2.6) and high (SSP5-8.5) emission scenarios. Results show submerged areas increase by 2–3

Marine protected area (MPA) networks are important for supporting biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem resilience, and facilitating species recovery. For the effectiveness of conservation and restoration, functional connectivity plays a vital role. The dispersal, movement, and successful establishment of organisms between suitable habitats and MPAs ensure long-term sustainability of the populations. Despite its importance, functional connectivity is rarely integrated into restoration planning, which limits the effectiveness of species reintroductions, habitat connectivity, and adaptation to environmental changes. In this study, we applied an integrative approach combining molecular detections (environmental DNA [eDNA] and meroplankton metabarcoding) with biophysical modeling to explore the functional connectivity between two Natura 2000 MPAs in the North Sea: Borkum Reef Ground (BRG) and Sylt Outer Reef (SOR). We focused on the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis), a reef-building species that once provided vast reef habitats but is now functionally extinct in the German Bight and is therefore the subject of recent restoration measures at BRG. Our results showed partial but informative correspondence between molecular detections of oyster genetic traces and the modeled larval pathways during the June-July 2022 sampling period. We further explored larval dispersal across entire spawning seasons in 2022 and 2023. Connectivity between BRG and SOR was highly dependent on larval drift depth. Surface-drifting larvae showed strong interannual variability, with 3% reaching SOR in 2022 when northwesterly winds dominated, increasing to 22% in 2023 under westerly and southwesterly winds. Larvae drifting at depth, however, exhibited near-zero connectivity, leading to high self-recruitment rates, with over 25% settling near the original restoration sites. Our results demonstrate that wind-driven currents are a key driver of interannual variability in larval retention and dispersal. Additionally, they highlight the role of biological traits, such as vertical positioning and pelagic larval duration, in shaping connectivity between MPAs and oyster restoration sites. These findings emphasize the need to integrate connectivity assessments into MPA management and the restoration planning of reef-building benthic species. The interdisciplinary approach presented here provides a quantitative framework for assessing connectivity under species- and site-specific conditions, offering a transferable tool to evaluate the restoration potential of other species and enhance the functional network between MPAs.

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) is a key component of coastal ecosystems, modulating light availability, nutrient transport, and food web dynamics. Its variability is driven by a combination of physical and biological processes that interact across temporal and spatial scales. Using the Sylt-Rømø Bight as a natural laboratory and focusing on the period 2000–2019, in this study, we integrate statistical analysis of observational data from the Sylt Roads monitoring program and local meteorological stations, neural network modelling and Lagrangian transport simulations. This multi-method approach enables us to disentangle and quantify the relative roles of tidal and wind forcing, as well as biological processes in shaping SPM concentrations across various time scales, based on near-surface measurements at two monitoring stations. The findings show that wind intensity dominates short-term SPM variability, particularly at the shallow station, where SPM responds rapidly to local wind-induced resuspension. At the deep station, the wind effects appear with a delay of ∼5 d, aligning with tidally induced transport timescales (∼133 h) from shallower resuspension zones, as revealed by Lagrangian simulations. Seasonal patterns are further modulated by both reduced wind intensities and the onset of biological processes, such as phytoplankton blooms, which promote flocculation and subsequent settling in spring and summer. Neural network experiments highlight the shifting seasonal balance between physical and biological controls. The median concentration of SPM decreased by up to 80 % from winter to summer. Approximately 40 % of this seasonal difference can be attributed to weaker wind conditions, while the remaining ∼40 % is likely driven by biologically mediated sinking processes.

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) is a key component of coastal ecosystems, influencing light availability, primary production, and nutrient transport. This study investigates the driving mechanisms behind the seasonal and interannual variability of SPM concentrations measured at two long-term monitoring stations in the Sylt-Rømø Bight, a sandy tidally dominated basin in the Wadden Sea. Combining Sylt Roads long-term observations from 2000–2019 and numerical simulations with the coastal hydrodynamic model FESOM-C with its Lagrangian particle tracking module, we analyse the interplay of wind and tidal forcing, and biological processes in shaping SPM dynamics.Preliminary analysis of the observational dataset reveals a pronounced seasonal cycle, with a peak in winter ~30 mg/l and a sharp decline in summer ~6.5 mg/l across both stations. These variations are associated with stronger wind events in winter and higher biological activity (reflected by chlorophyll-a concentrations) during spring and summer, indicative of phytoplankton-driven flocculation processes. The data further highlight distinct patterns: the shallower station exhibits an almost immediate response to wind events within 24 h, while at the deeper station, SPM reaches peak concentrations with a delay of ~120 h, consistent with the influence of tidally induced transport in addition to sustained wind-driven mixing. Complementary results from Lagrangian modelling effectively capture these delayed responses at deeper stations and further illustrate the tide-driven transport pathways of resuspended material within the basin.The findings of this ongoing work provide new insights into coastal physical-biological coupling and the the relative roles of the considered processes in driving SPM variability in tidally dominated systems.

Sea-level rise (SLR) significantly modifies the hydro- and morphodynamics of the tidal flat systems, such as the Wadden Sea (south-eastern North Sea). The current research aims to investigate changes in intertidal dynamics in response to future sea level rise scenarios and their implications for local Wadden Sea habitats, with a focus on the Sylt-Rømø Bight as a case study. With the help of the coastal hydrodynamic model FESOM-C, we simulated a series of SLR scenarios based on the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC and morphodynamical projections and analyzed the resulting changes in tidal inundation, local circulation patterns and tidal asymmetry. The simulations were performed on the unstructured mesh with a resolution of up to 2 m in the wetting-drying zone. The results reveal that the intertidal flat areas remain rather resilient to the projected scenarios by 2050. Despite an increasing wetting probability, only 2.2% and 3.4% (13 and 21 km2) of their area are expected to submerge for low and high emissions scenarios (RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5), respectively. By the end of the century, these percentages increase two and four times, reaching 4.8% and 13.9% (29 and 84 km2) for low and high-emission scenarios. Although an evolution of the peak current velocities is also rather negligible by 2050, a shift in the tidal asymmetry is apparent which points to a gradual transition from a tidal to a lagoon-like system in the future as sea-level rise accelerates. As the projected changes are spatially very diverse, we provide maps of tidal asymmetry in terms of flood/ebb duration, mean and max velocities and discuss the implications for the local habitats.

This study investigated the transport of European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) larvae between two Marine Protected Areas in the North Sea: Borkum Reef Ground (BRG), where oysters were recently reintroduced, and Sylt Outer Reef (SOR). Additionally, we determined the source of oyster genetic material collected during cruises in 2022 between BRG and SOR. To achieve these goals, numerical simulations focusing on surface and depth-averaged water mass transport were conducted using the FESOM-C coastal ocean model with a forward/backward Lagrangian module. Surface drifter data were also analysed to examine surface transport and validate the model output. Our results indicate that typical summer wind conditions, along with tidal residual currents, support the transport of water masses and passive tracers from BRG to SOR. Surface water masses from BRG generally approach SOR from the south and west. However, BRG and SOR are usually connected over periods exceeding two weeks, even considering the fastest surface currents. Strong and persistent south-westerly winds, which are uncommon in summer, can accelerate this connection to under two weeks. Conversely, strong and persistent easterly or south-easterly winds, also rare in summer, can prevent some passive tracers originating from BRG from ever reaching SOR or the eastern North Sea. In the case of depth-averaged transport, significantly more time is required, with a minimum duration of eleven weeks to connect the domains. This connection could be facilitated by an intermediary habitat - as a stepping stone in the transition zone, if that provides suitable habitat for settlement and subsequent larval production.

Disaster warning and emergency response are an emerging field of HPC/cloud computing which is now known as urgent computing . This means that computing is required to be performed within short time scales. In this regard, the timeliness for early warning of the population is the foremost important point well before accuracy, as long as the predictions are sufficiently accurate, hence a coarser level of precision is acceptable to that end. It also processes a large amount of data and provides well-targeted, high-resolution, and highly reliable information to emergency management stakeholders. At an early stage, it is also important to take into account the uncertainties surrounding the disaster parameters. To do this, the simulation process must include a range of possible values for each of the main input parameters. Following this principle, we hereby present an impact assessment workflow that is designed to provide building-specific damage assessments caused by earthquakes and possible subsequent tsunamis. We target short run-times to guarantee that results are provided as needed for emergency response decisions and that a proper impact assessment is provided, allowing for meaningful planning of rescue actions. We show the design principles coming from a time-aware model of computation, to the specification of the workflow, and the individual programs that compose it. A working prototype was developed as part of the LEXIS project. This paper also includes preliminary experiments toward robust urgent computing, utilizing distributed, heterogeneous HPC and cloud infrastructures.

Marine protected area (MPA) networks are fundamental for restoring and conserving ecosystem functions like biodiversity and general ecosystem health. Ideally, the effects of local conservation measures are not limited to one particular MPA alone but influence and connect regions beyond, or even other MPAs, through the spreading, replenishment and potential recovery of populations and communities. Connectivity defines, in a probabilistic sense, the functional linkage exchange between individual MPAs or key regions, and it depends on the features of the selected tracers (including the specific biological traits of target organisms), but it is also to a large degree determined by the hydrodynamic circulation patterns in the area. For the German Bight (south-eastern North Sea), we are focusing in particular on potential spillover from a restoration site for the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) through the spread of planktonic life stages. The circulation regimes are determined mainly by tidal and wind forcings. The prevailing wind-driven surface circulation in the area is cyclonic, influenced by frequent south-westerly to westerly winds. However, winds from other directions, for instance from the North-West, have the potential to modify and even reverse this circulation pattern. Wind intensity and directions have a clear seasonal variability, with higher magnitudes in winter and lower in summer, but also exhibit a significant interannual variability driven by the strength and location of high and low mean sea level atmospheric pressure centres. Moreover, winds from the East are relatively rare compared to the other patterns but can be extremely persistent (up to hundreds of hours) and thus affect the hydrodynamics and, hence, the connectivity between the MPAs. In this study, we catalogued the wind events according to their typical duration and magnitude using 10m eastward and northwards components retrieved from ERA5 reanalysis data and characterized them according to their seasonality and interannual variability. The results can be used to define realistic atmospheric scenarios to numerically simulate the sea dynamics in the southern North Sea and, consequently, assess the connectivity among different sites, including established MPAs. These efforts are crucial for a proper planning of conservation and restoration measures in the German Bight, which is one of the most exploited marine regions in the world.

This paper presents a methodological tool for dynamic reconstruction of the state of the ocean, based, as an example, on observations from the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) experiment. The data used in this study were collected in the Amundsen Basin between October 2019 and January 2020. Analysing observational data to assess tracer field and upper-ocean dynamics is highly challenging when measurement platforms drift with the ice pack due to continuous drift speed and direction changes. We have equipped the new version of the coastal branch of the global Finite-volumE sea ice–Ocean Model (FESOM-C) with a nudging method. Model nudging was carried out assuming a quasi-steady state. Overall, the model can reproduce the lateral and vertical structure of the temperature, salinity, and density fields, which allows for projecting dynamically consistent features of these fields onto a regular grid. We identify two separate depth ranges of enhanced eddy kinetic energy located around two maxima in buoyancy frequency: the depth of the upper halocline and the depth of the warm (modified) Atlantic Water. Simulations reveal a notable decrease in surface layer salinity and density in the Amundsen Basin towards the north but no significant gradient from east to west. However, we find a mixed-layer deepening from east to west, with a 0.084 m km−1 gradient at 0.6 m km−1 standard deviation, compared to a weak deepening from south to north. The model resolves several stationary eddies in the warm Atlantic Water and provides insights into the associated dynamics. The model output can be used to further analyse the thermohaline structure and related dynamics associated with mesoscale and submesoscale processes in the central Arctic, such as estimates of heat fluxes or mass transport. The developed nudging method can be utilized to incorporate observational data from a diverse set of instruments and for further analysis of data from the MOSAiC expedition.

This investigation addresses the tsunami inundation in Lima and Callao caused by the massive 1746 earthquake (Mw 9.0) along the Peruvian coast. Numerical modeling of the tsunami inundation processes in the nearshore includes strong nonlinear numerical terms. In a comparative analysis of the calculation of the tsunami wave effect, two numerical codes are used, Tsunami-HySEA and TsunAWI, which both solve the shallow water (SW) equations but with different spatial approximations. The comparison primarily evaluates the flow velocity fields in inundated areas. The relative importance of the various parts of the SW equations is determined, focusing on the nonlinear terms. Particular attention is paid to the contribution of momentum advection, bottom friction, and volume conservation. The influence of the nonlinearity on the degree and volume of inundation, flow velocity, and small-scale fluctuations is determined. The sensitivity of the solution concerning the bottom friction parameter is also investigated, showing the effects of nonlinearity processes in the inundated areas, wave heights, current velocity, and the spatial structure variations shown in tsunami inundation maps.

The results of an extensive series of numerical experiments of the GNOM-LS model for modelling the physical and energy characteristics of tsunami waves generated by landslides are presented. Based on the published data on the tsunami on 28 September 2018 in Palu Bay, we analysed the sensitivity of the distribution of wave heights along the coastline formed by the landslide system, depending on the characteristics of these landslides and model parameters. The complexity of the work lies in the lack of a holistic picture of the initial information about landslides, their number and accurate measurement data on the height of the waves of the event. We attempted to restore these conditions by comparing numerical simulations for various initialisations of the landslide system with available observational data. It is revealed that the simulated system has a very high sensitivity to the initial conditions and characteristics of landslides. An essential task of the work is interpreting a complex picture of the nonlinear interaction of tsunami waves with minor changes in the initial characteristics of landslides. Based on the numerical simulation of single landslides and a complete system of landslides, an analysis of the complex structure of the nonlinear interaction of tsunami waves is carried out.

The paper presents information on the history of designing Indiga Bay and the results of calculations of the hydrodynamic regime using the FESOM-C model. Time dependencies of the water surface level, current velocities, and maps of current distribution depending on wind strength and tide phases are obtained.

Для моделирования гидродинамического и термохалинного режимов бухты Индига использовалась модель FESOM-C с добавленным ледовым блоком. В результате рассчитаны трехмерные распределения скоростей, солености, температуры и турбулентных характеристик для различных фаз прилива в случае открытой воды и для периода ледостава. Построены и проанализированы измененения осредненных характеристик во времени и по пространству. Получены выводы о влиянии ледяного покрова на динамические характеристики приливного течения и распространение соленой воды в эстуарии.

The estimation of expected damage and losses from natural hazards requires that uncertainties in the modelling and knowledge of future events be quantified and taken into consideration. This is true not only in a fully probabilistic context but also in future scenario calculations, particularly when looking at two or more cascading hazards in which the link between them is not univocal. An offshore earthquake that triggers a tsunami would be one such case. Even if the moment magnitude and rupture size and location of the earthquake were fully defined, it is not possible to know a priori the slip distribution along the rupture and the subsequent co-seismic topographic displacements. Many feasible slip distributions can be associated with the same moment magnitude and dimensions of the rupture, and these lead to a distribution of subsequent topographic displacements and, with that, a diversity of tsunami outcomes. Exactly how much variety exists in the resulting tsunamis, in terms, for example, of maximum wave height or maximum flow velocity at points of interest, and, ultimately, damage to buildings and losses, is the question driving the present study, which is part of the “risk workflow for CAScading and COmpounding hazards in COastal urban areas” (CASCO) project. The ultimate objective is to understand the relevance of this uncertainty and whether it needs to be modelled in the whole damage/loss calculation chain.To investigate this, 500 realisations of stochastically generated rupture slip have been produced for the 1908 Mw 7.1 Messina earthquake, whose rupture source is taken from the Italian Database of Individual Seismogenic Sources (DISS). The subsequent realisations of ground surface deformation (at the bottom of the sea and on land) were used as input to run realisations of the resulting tsunami in the Strait of Messina, eastern Sicily and western Calabria with the TsunAWI software. Maximum wave heights, maximum absolute velocities and maximum flux can vary significantly for selected observation points along the coast and within the Messina Strait. While a weak correlation has been identified between these tsunami outputs and inputs such as the maximum initial co-seismic vertical displacement, a stronger correlation has been observed with respect to the distance to the centroid of rupture slip. So far, results indicate that the uncertainty in the co-seismic slip along the rupture and the subsequent vertical displacements has a relevant impact on the resulting tsunami, suggesting that this source of uncertainty should not be entirely neglected in models. Using these tsunami outputs to estimate damage to buildings in the area allows us to understand the ultimate final impact on damage and loss calculations, and to develop and test strategies to reduce the resulting computational demand.

In this study, an ensemble of numerical simulations with a state-of-the-art hydrodynamic model for coastal applications is used to characterize, for the first time, the expected mid-21st-century changes in circulation and associated sea-level height inside the Venice lagoon induced by projected Mediterranean sea level rise and atmospheric circulation changes over the Adriatic Sea under the RCP8.5 emission scenario. Our results show that water transports through the three inlets connecting the Venice lagoon to the open sea are expected to change significantly, with consequent significant persistent alterations of the circulation and sea-level height inside the lagoon. The projected water mass redistributions motivate further studies on the implications of climate change for the lagoon environment.

Abstract. The Arctic Ocean is a region important for global and regional climate. Although generally quiescent compared to mid-latitudes, the upper Arctic ocean hosts mesoscale and smaller scale processes. These processes can have a profound impact on vertical ocean fluxes, stratification, and feedback with the sea ice and atmosphere. Sparse and non-synoptic in-situ observations of the polar oceans are limited by the distribution of manual observing platforms and autonomous instrumentation. Analyzing observational data to assess tracer field gradients and upper ocean dynamics becomes highly challenging when measurement platforms drift with the ice pack due to continuous changes in drift speed direction. This work presents a dynamical reconstruction of the ocean state, based on observations of the Multidisciplinary Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) experiment. Overall, the model can reproduce the lateral and vertical structure of the temperature, salinity, and density fields, which allows for projecting dynamically consistent features of these fields onto a regular grid. We identify two separate depth ranges of enhanced eddy kinetic energy, which are located around two maxima in buoyancy frequency: the depth of the upper halocline and the depth of the warm (modified) Atlantic Water. Simulations reveal a notable decrease in surface layer salinity and density towards the north, accompanied by high variability in the mixed layer depth in the south-north direction. And no significant horizontal gradients in salinity and density fields but an increase in mixed layer depth from west to east 0.084 m/km gradient with 0.6 m/km standard deviation, indicating opposite characteristics compared to the south-north direction. The model resolves several stationary eddies in the warm Atlantic Water and provides insights into the associated dynamics. The obtained three-dimensional fields of temperature and salinity can be used for further analysis of the thermohaline structure and related dynamics associated with submesoscale processes in the Central Arctic. Dynamic characteristics and eddy fields can be used for further analysis and comparison with state-of-the-art climate and Earth System Models. The developed nudging method can be used to utilize future observational data obtained from a diverse set of instruments.

Numerical simulations of the tsunami inundation processes require a highly nonlinear scheme. The main inundation properties, such as theflow depth and velocity depend critically on topographical imprints and bottom friction parameters. Here, we investigate the tsunami inundation in Lima and Callao resulting from the extensive 1746 (Mw 9.0) earthquake that ruptured along the Peruvian coast.Two numerical tsunami codes have been used in this analysis based on shallow water equations. We determine the relative importance of different parts in these equations with a focus on nonlinear terms. Particular focus is put on the momentum advection, bottom friction, and volume conservation in different mesh (triangular meshes and nested grids). We determine the influence on large-scale quantities like inundation extent and volume, flow velocities, and small-scale fluctuations. In that respect, also sensitivities regarding the bottom friction parameters are investigated.

When Antarctic glaciers retreat, high sediment loads from geomorphological and glaciological sources can disturb the biota, especially filtering organisms, and thereby significantly alter the ecology of the Antarctic coast. We applied the Finite volumE Sea-ice Ocean-Coastal Model (FESOM-C), a numerical tool equipped with a sediment module, to simulate for the first time the suspended particulate matter (SPM) dynamics in a fjordic environment at the northern West Antarctic Peninsula, Potter Cove as a case study. Depth-averaged SPM dynamics during a meteorologically representative austral summer (120 days from December to March) considered tidal and atmospheric forcing. Additionally, idealised experiments with passive particles based on post processing Lagrangian module identified and followed possible material trajectories in Potter Cove. Particle dynamics in the area show them to be primarily tidal and wind-driven, sensitive to bathymetry, with the higher SPM concentrations in the inner cove and the highest hydrographical complexity in the transitional area between the fjordic and marine habitat. The SPM plume covers 5.5 km(2) of the total inlet of 9 km(2), with monthly mean values between 15 and 330 mg/l. The maximum SPM concentrations are during January (790 mg/l), and the maximum plume expansion during February. The model was validated with available in situ measurements. With this study, we can identify areas in Potter Cove (and similar coastal fjordic environments, prospectively) of increasing physical stress by longer SPM residence time and high accumulation rates induced by glacial meltwater. These factors are crucial for pelagic and benthic assemblages dependent on light and food availability, as well sediment deposition.

This study is dedicated to the dynamics in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the German Bight under different forcing scenarios. A large amount of data has been collected in the North Sea over the last decades to characterize MPAs, which can shed light on long-term changes in the North Sea dynamics from abiotic part to ecosystem. At the moment, a question is raised about the interconnection between MPAs and their representativeness for the larger area. Nowadays, this issue can be resolved with the existing numerical instruments and accumulated observations. We paid particular attention to the tidal dynamics in the North Sea since tidal residual circulation and asymmetric tidal cycles significantly define circulation patterns, transport and accumulation of biogeochemical material, and the distribution of bedforms in this relatively shallow region. We analyzed in detail the tidal energy transformation and the role of higher harmonics in the domain. The tidal ellipses, maximum tidally induced velocities, energy fluxes and residual circulation maps are constructed and analyzed. The numerical tool used in this study is the FESOM-C model (Androsov et al., 2019), which works with triangular, rectangular or mixed grids and is equipped with a wetting/drying option. A grid with a resolution of up to 10 meters in the flooded areas is used. Androsov, A., Fofonova, V., Kuznetsov, I., Danilov, S., Rakowsky, N., Harig, S., Brix, H., and Wiltshire, K. H.: FESOM-C v.2: coastal dynamics on hybrid unstructured meshes, Geoscientific Model Development, 12, 1009-1028, 10.5194/gmd-12-1009-2019, 2019.