This case study describes a contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) examination of the coelom in a female bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and presents a structured CT-based workflow for anatomical identification and segmentation. CT images were acquired using standard imaging protocols and subsequently processed on a dedicated DICOM workstation. Multiplanar reconstructions (MPR) were generated in the transverse, sagittal, and dorsal planes to assess anatomical relationships. Maximum-intensity projection (MIP) images were generated from the MPR datasets, whereas three-dimensional volume-rendered (3D VR) images were generated directly from the CT volume. Anatomical segmentation was performed using the resulting MIP and 3D VR datasets. Anatomical structures were identified directly from the imaging data and manually segmented. The resulting segmentations were organised into a layer-based dataset to ensure consistency and traceability across the anatomical regions. This workflow provides a structured framework for the identification and organisation of anatomical structures within CT-derived datasets. An interactive visualisation environment was developed to facilitate the exploration of the segmented data, enable the dynamic display of labelled anatomical structures, and support the interpretation of the segmentation results. This study therefore presents a preliminary CT-based approach to anatomical segmentation in an avian species and may contribute to improved anatomical delineation and image interpretation in similar applications. The methodology may also support the development of analogous segmentation approaches for other avian species and related imaging applications.

The coelomic cavity of sea turtles is affected by congenital, developmental, traumatic, infectious, and organ- or system-specific disorders, making accurate anatomical knowledge essential for veterinary practice. This study presents an open-access, interactive two-dimensional (2D) anatomical atlas of the coelomic cavity of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), developed using images obtained from osteology, gross anatomical dissections, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The atlas comprises six osteology images, sixteen anatomical dissection images, eight transverse CT images acquired using bone and soft-tissue windows, six three-dimensional (3D) volume-rendered CT images, and fourteen MRI images (four transverse, five dorsal, and five sagittal), all provided in PNG format. Relevant anatomical structures were segmented and colour-coded for each figure using manual layer-based segmentation software. The Unity 3D platform was employed for image visualisation and assessment, supporting the development of interactive two-dimensional content. This atlas serves as a useful interactive tool for anatomical learning and clinical reference for professionals and students engaged in the conservation of loggerhead sea turtles.

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to characterize the normal anatomy of the Shetland pony heart through an integrative approach combining two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography and anatomical dissection.MethodsTransthoracic echocardiographic examinations were performed in 19 clinically healthy Shetland ponies, obtaining standardized longitudinal and cross-sectional two-dimensional views of the heart. These images were used to describe the main echocardiographic windows and to document the visualization of relevant cardiac structures. In parallel, four Shetland pony hearts were dissected and sectioned, allowing an illustrative correspondence between anatomical landmarks and representative echocardiographic views, thereby facilitating a more precise interpretation of the observed structures. Furthermore, basic two-dimensional echocardiographic measurements were determined, including diameters of key cardiovascular chambers and vessels.ResultsNineteen Shetland ponies (median age 6.8 years; median body weight 136.9 kg) were evaluated. Anatomical analysis allowed identification of the main cardiac structures and their topographic relationships, which showed illustrative correspondence with the two-dimensional echocardiographic views. The largest measurements were the left ventricular diastolic diameter (5.4 cm) and the left atrial diastolic diameter (4.2 cm), while the smallest was the right ventricular free wall in diastole (1.2 cm). Intra-observer variability was low (ICC = 0.94; CV = 3.2%), confirming high measurement repeatability.ConclusionOverall, the data obtained provide an adequate anatomical reference and offer relevant insights to support the interpretation of transthoracic two-dimensional echocardiographic studies in Shetland ponies.

This study aimed to characterize the computed tomographic (CT) dimensions and contrast attenuation properties of the equine eye. CT scans from 21 horses without ocular abnormalities were analyzed to obtain detailed ocular measurements and attenuation values. In addition, cranial measurements, such as nasal–occipital length and zygomatic width, were incorporated to explore potential anatomical relationships between the skull and intraocular structures. Although most correlations between cranial and ocular parameters were weak, statistically significant associations—particularly those involving lens dimensions and anterior chamber measurements—suggest that skull morphology may exert a subtle influence on ocular anatomy.

Understanding the anatomy of the avian nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is essential for diagnosing respiratory diseases and interpreting imaging findings. However, detailed tomographic descriptions of these structures are scarce in seabirds. This study aimed to provide an anatomical and radiological characterization of the nasal cavity and associated sinuses of the yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis atlantis). Computed tomography (CT) was performed on eight cadaveric specimens using a 16-slice helical scanner with bone and pulmonary window settings. Anatomical cross-sections of the same heads were subsequently obtained to correlate and validate CT findings. CT imaging clearly delineated major nasal structures, including the rostral, middle, and caudal nasal conchae, the nasal septum, and the infraorbital sinus, as well as their connections to adjacent cranial bones. The integration of CT and anatomical cross-sections provided detailed spatial relationships and accurate visualization of the internal nasal architecture. This study demonstrates the value of CT for examining avian cranial anatomy and provides a morphological reference framework that may aid in diagnosing nasal and sinus pathologies in seabirds.

This study utilized CT imaging to investigate the rostral part of the head of the crested porcupine’s head. By combining CT images with anatomical cross-sections, we have provided a detailed description of the structures in this area. This information could be useful for diagnosing disorders and improving their treatment in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses of crested porcupines.

This study aims to develop three-dimensional printing models of the bony nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses of big and domestic cats using reconstructed computed tomographic images. This work included an exhaustive study of the osseous nasal anatomy of the domestic cat carried out through dissections, bone trepanations and sectional anatomy. With the use of OsiriX viewer, the DICOM images were postprocessed to obtaining maximum-intensity projection and volume-rendering reconstructions, which allowed for the visualization of the nasal cavity structures and the paranasal sinuses, providing an improvement in the future anatomical studies and diagnosis of pathologies. DICOM images were also processed with AMIRA software to obtain three-dimensional images using semiautomatic segmentation application. These images were then exported using 3D Slicer software for three-dimensional printing. Molds were printed with the Stratasys 3D printer. In human medicine, three-dimensional printing is already of great importance in the clinical field; however, it has not yet been implemented in veterinary medicine and is a technique that will, in the future, in addition to facilitating the anatomical study and diagnosis of diseases, allow for the development of implants that will improve the treatment of pathologies and the survival of big felids.

The objective of this work was to study the normal anatomy of the nasal cavity of the three species of big cats (leopard, lion, and cheetah) compared to the domestic cat through the use of computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and rhinoscopy. Computed tomography allowed us to clearly visualize the entire bony and cartilaginous framework that supports the nasal cavity. Magnetic resonance imaging permitted better visualization of the soft tissues of this cavity. On the other hand, rhinoscopy enabled the direct visualization of the mucosa of the vestibule and nasal cavity, which is very useful in the diagnosis of masses or foreign bodies. Furthermore, with this technique, it has been possible to observe several small orifices from the nasolacrimal duct, the pharyngeal auditory tube, and the lateral nasal gland. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and rhinoscopy are useful tools in analysis of the anatomical characteristics of the nasal cavity in these species.

This research aimed to study the rostral part of the head of the six-banded armadillo, applying advanced imaging techniques such as CT. Furthermore, by combining the images obtained through this technique with anatomical cross-sections, an adequate description of the structures that constitute the rostral part of the head of this species is presented. This anatomical information could provide a valuable diagnostic tool for the clinical evaluation of different disorders in the six-banded armadillo’s nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses.

In this study, six adult feline cadavers were examined using CTA, 3D printing, and casts injected with epoxy. The aorta, the portal vein, and the gallbladder of 3 feline cadavers were separately injected with a 50% mixture of colored vulcanized latex and hydrated barium sulfate as contrast medium to analyze by CT the arterial, venous and biliary systems. The other three cadavers were injected with a mixture of epoxy resin in the aorta, gallbladder and hepatic veins, separately. After the corrosion and washing process, hepatic vascular and biliary casts were obtained. The images obtained by CT showed the vascular and biliary system using a soft tissue window. For the identification of vascular and biliary structures, the 3D prints together with the 3D reconstructions were analyzed, and the results were compared with the casts obtained with epoxy resin. Each of the arterial, venous and biliary branches associated with each of the liver lobes were identified with the help of the printings. In conclusion, the creation of 3D prototypes of nonpathological feline hepatic parenchyma can be used in the veterinary clinic as a basis for the detection of pathological problems in addition to obtaining future pathological hepatic 3D models.

This paper aimed to describe an atlas of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) head by applying advanced imaging techniques such as MRI. Furthermore, by combining the images acquired through these techniques with anatomical sections, we obtained an adequate description of the structures that form the CNS and associated structures of this species. This anatomical information could serve as a valuable diagnostic tool for the clinical evaluation of different pathological processes in porcupines, such as abscesses, skull malformations, fractures, and neoplasia.

The growing interest in reptiles has posed a challenge to veterinary clinicians due to the lack of a standardized system to perform anatomical studies similar to those used for dogs and cats. In this paper, we have attempted to describe, employing computed tomography and subsequent three-dimensional reconstructions, the normal anatomical features that comprise the skulls of two species of reptiles: the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Computed tomography (CT) and subsequent image processing allowed the identification of the bony structures that comprise the head of these species. As a result, and based on previous articles, we propose the most significant anatomical differences and similarities between these species.

This study describes the anatomical characteristics of the abdominal and pelvic vascular system of two healthy mature female cats via three-dimensional contrast enhanced computed tomography angiography, non-contrast enhanced magnetic resonance angiography and three-dimensional printing. Volume-rendering computed tomography angiography images were acquired from the ventral aspect using RadiAnt, Amira and OsiriX MD Dicom three-dimensional formats, and three-dimensional printing was obtained and compared with the corresponding computed tomography angiography images. Non-contrast enhanced magnetic resonance angiography was made using the time-of-flight imaging in ventral, oblique and lateral views. In addition, three cadavers with colored latex injection were dissected to facilitate the identification of the vascular structures. Three-dimensional computed tomography angiography showed the main vascular structures, whereas with the time-of-flight blood appeared with a high signal intensity compared with associated abdominal and pelvic tissues. Three-dimensional computed tomography angiography images and time-of-flight sequences provided adequate anatomical details of the main arteries and veins that could be used for future feline anatomical and clinical vascular studies of the abdomen and pelvis.

In this work, the fetal and newborn anatomical structures of the dolphin oropharyngeal cavities were studied. The main technique used was endoscopy, as these cavities are narrow tubular spaces and the oral cavity is difficult to photograph without moving the specimen. The endoscope was used to study the mucosal features of the oral and pharyngeal cavities. Two pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes were discovered on either side of the choanae and larynx. These spaces begin close to the musculotubaric channel of the middle ear, are linked to the pterygopalatine recesses (pterygoid sinus) and they extend to the maxillopalatine fossa. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), osteological analysis, sectional anatomy, dissections, and histology were also used to better understand the function of the pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes. These data were then compared with the horse’s pharyngeal diverticula of the auditory tubes. The histology revealed that a vascular plexus inside these diverticula could help to expel the air from this space to the nasopharynx. In the oral cavity, teeth remain inside the alveolus and covered by gums. The marginal papillae of the tongue differ in extension depending on the fetal specimen studied. The histology reveals that the incisive papilla is vestigial and contain abundant innervation. No ducts were observed inside lateral sublingual folds in the oral cavity proper and caruncles were not seen in the prefrenular space.

This study aimed to describe the anatomic features of the normal head of the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) identified by computed tomography. CT images were obtained in two dragons using a helical CT scanner. All sections were displayed with a bone and soft tissue windows setting. Head reconstructed, and maximum intensity projection images were obtained to enhance bony structures. After CT imaging, the images were compared with other studies and reptile anatomy textbooks to facilitate the interpretation of the CT images. Anatomic details of the head of the Komodo dragon were identified according to the CT density characteristics of the different organic tissues. This information is intended to be a useful initial anatomic reference in interpreting clinical CT imaging studies of the head and associated structures in live Komodo dragons.

The head of the sea turtle is susceptible to congenital, developmental, traumatic, and infectious disorders. An accurate interpretation and thorough understanding of the anatomy of this region could be useful for veterinary practice on sea turtles. The purpose of this study was to develop an interactive two-dimensional (2D) atlas viewing software of the head of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) using images obtained via osteology, gross dissections, and computed tomography (CT). The atlas is composed of 10 osteology, 13 gross dissection, 10 sagittal multiplanar reconstructed CT (bone and soft tissue kernels), and 22 transverse CT (bone and soft tissue windows) images. All images were segmented and colored using ITK-SNAP software. The visualization and image assessment were performed using the Unity 3D platform to facilitate the development of interactive content in 2D. This atlas can be useful as an interactive anatomic resource for assessment of the head of loggerhead sea turtles.

The purpose of this paper was to do a comparative evaluation of the skull of two species of lizards, the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) and the Green Iguana (Iguana iguana), by three-dimensional computed tomographic reconstruction. Images provided by this method give excellent anatomic detail of the skull. Therefore, essential differences in the configuration of the orbit and the lateral bones of the neurocranium were visualized in lateral and dorsal reconstructed images. The images obtained by tridimensional computed tomographic reconstruction can be a valuable diagnostic aid for the clinical evaluation of several head disturbances in lizards.Key words: computed tomography; 3D reconstruction; anatomy; skull; lizardsPRIMERJAVA LOBANJ KOMODOŠKEGA VARANA (Varanus komodoensis) IN ZELENEGA LEGVANA (Iguana iguana) S POMOČJO TRIDIMENZIONALNE RAČUNALNIŠKE TOMOGRAFSKE REKONSTRUKCIJEIzvleček: Namen prispevka je bil s tridimenzionalno računalniško tomografsko rekonstrukcijo opraviti primerjalno oceno lobanje dveh vrst kuščarjev, komodoškega varana (Varanus komodoensis) in zelenega legvana (Iguana iguana). Slike, pridobljene s to metodo, prikažejo odlične anatomske podrobnosti lobanje. Zato so bile na stranskih in dorzalnih rekonstrukcijah slik vidne bistvene razlike v zgradbi orbitalnega področja in stranskih kosti nevrokranija med obema vrstama kuščarjev. Slike, pridobljene s tridimenzionalno računalniško tomografsko rekonstrukcijo, so lahko dragocena diagnostična pomoč pri klinični oceni večih napak glave pri kuščarjih.Ključne besede: računalniška tomografija; 3D rekonstrukcija; anatomija; lobanja; kuščarji

BACKGROUND:Despite multiple studies describing accurate diagnoses using advanced neuroimaging techniques, low and mid-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are still the most frequent scanners in veterinary clinics. To date, these studies in cats do not show a clear distinction of nerve centres in MRI data.AIMS:The objective of this study is to determine the efficacy of Mulligan histological staining as a tool in facilitating the location and identification of the main structures of the feline brain in MRI. This study aims to facilitate the interpretation of MRI obtained with these types of scanners.METHODS:A total of 10 feline brains were used. One specimen was used for MRI (T2 sequence using a 1.5T scanner). The other 9 brains were sectioned and stained with the three Mulligan staining techniques (Mulligan, Le Masurier and Robert).RESULTS:The uptake of stain by the grey matter in these sections allowed the determination of the location and the limits of these nervous structures within the brain. The histological location of these structures was correlated with the MRI scans, leading to the successful identification of many small, indistinct nuclei.CONCLUSION:Mulligan staining is proposed as a tool that facilitates the location of nerve structures in comparison with data from the most frequently-used MRI scanners in veterinary clinics.

Our goal was to analyze the main anatomical structures of the dolphin external nose and nasal cavity from fetal developmental stages to adult. Endoscopy was used to study the common development of the external nose and the melon, and nasal mucosa. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and anatomical sections were correlated with anatomical sections. Computed tomography (CT) was used to generate 3D reconstructions of the nasal bones and nasal cavities to study its development. Dissections, histological and pathological studies were carried out on the nasal mucosa to understand its function. These results were compared with the horse. Endoscopy showed an external nose with two lips and the upper lip is divided by a groove due to the nasal septum and an obstruction of right nasal cavity was diagnosed in a newborn. Two diverticula (air sacs) were found in the nasal vestibule and an incisive recess (premaxillary sac) in the nasal cavity. These findings were corroborated by 3D reconstructions of the nasal cavities, MRI, anatomical sections and dissections. The presphenoid and ethmoid bones were fused at early stages of fetal development. The ethmoid is the last bone to ossify in the nasal cavity.

BACKGROUND:Unlike dogs, feline abdominal studies are rare. Note that anatomical estudies in felines are scarce and almost unique using feline cadaver by means of sectional anatomy and computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Aims: In this study, a non-pathological vascularization model of feline abdomen was conducted on three adult cats was using anatomical and diagnostic imaging techniques.METHODS:A live pet cat and two cat cadavers were used in this study. Cat cadavers were injected with colored latex to show well-differentiated vascular structures and serial sections of cat abdomen were then provided. Computed tomography was performed by injecting an iodinated contrast medium through the cephalic vein of a live cat immediately before scanning. The CT images showed the arterial and venous vascular formations hyper-attenuated with two tomographic windows. The correlation between anatomical sections and their CTs was studied to identify vascular and and visceral structures.RESULTS:Hyper-attenuated vascular structures with the contrast medium were identified and marked along their path in the series of Dicom images with the Amira program. In this approach, sequentially and semiautomatically, vascular volumetric reconstruction was obtained without visceral formations. With the OsiriX program, volumetric reconstruction was automatic and maintained the fidelity of all visceral and vascular formations.CONCLUSION:We conclude that these improved prototypes could be used in veterinary clinics as normal vascular models and as a basis for obtaining future 3D models of vascular anomalies such as portosystemic shunts.