The origin of obscuration in active galactic nuclei (AGN) is still a matter of contention. It is unclear whether obscured AGN are primarily due to line-of-sight effects (Orientation model), a transitory, dust-enshrouded phase in galaxy evolution (Evolution models), or a combination of both. The role of an inner torus around the central supermassive black hole also remains unclear in pure Evolution models. We use cosmological semi-analytic models and semi-empirical prescriptions to explore obscuration effects in AGN at cosmic noon, in the range 1 < z < 3. We consider a realistic object-by-object modelling of AGN evolution including different AGN light curves (LCs) composed of phases of varying levels of obscuration, usually (but not uniquely) with a larger degree of obscuration before the peak of AGN activity, mimicking the possible clearing effects of strong AGN feedback. Evolution models characterized by AGN LCs with relatively short pre-peak obscured phases followed by more extended optical/ultraviolet (UV) visible post-peak phases, struggle to reproduce the high fraction of obscured AGN at z similar to 2-3 inferred from X-ray surveys. Evolution models characterized by AGN LCs with sharp post-peak declines or persistent or multiple obscuration phases are more successful, although they still face challenges in reproducing the steady drop in the fractions of obscured AGN with increasing luminosity measured by some groups. Invoking a fine-tuning in the input LCs, with more luminous AGN defined by longer optical/UV visible windows, can improve the match to the decreasing fractions of obscured AGN with luminosity. Alternatively, a long-lived central torus-like component, with thickness decreasing with increasing AGN power, naturally boosts the luminosity-dependent fractions of obscured AGN, suggesting that small-scale orientation effects may still represent a key component even in Evolution models. We also find that in our models major mergers and starbursts, when considered in isolation, fall short in accounting for the large fractions of highly obscured faint AGN detected at cosmic noon.

We present a new deep multi-frequency radio survey of two extragalactic fields observed with the Australia Telescope Compact Array as part of the SHORES project (Serendipitous H-ATLAS-fields Observations of Radio Extragalactic Sources). The observations, centred at 2.1, 5.5, and 9 GHz, cover the central 0.5 deg2 of two Herschel Astrophysical Terahertz Large Area Survey (H-ATLAS) fields down to rms sensitivities of 9-17 mu Jy beam-1 at 2.1 GHz, 28-39 mu Jy beam-1 at 5.5 GHz and 38-61 mu Jy beam-1 at 9 GHz. This setup allows us to investigate the spectral energy distributions of faint radio sources and probe the nature of the sub-mJy population. We extract and validate a robust catalogue of 489 sources at 2.1 GHz, 101 of which are also detected at 5.5 GHz. We perform a multi-frequency analysis of the radio number counts and derive the spectral indices of sources in the deep fields. The spectral index distribution of our sources peaks around alpha similar to -0.7, consistent with synchrotron emission from the faint radio population. The number counts at 2.1 GHz are consistent with previous deep surveys and theoretical models, and provide a lower limit on the star-forming galaxy (SFG) population, which is expected to dominate the faint end. The 5.5 GHz data offer new, direct constraints on the sub-mJy radio sky at higher frequencies. By cross-matching with the H-ATLAS catalogue, we identify a sample of sources with far-infrared (FIR) counterparts and explore the far-infrared-radio correlation. The sources with qFIR >= 1.69 exhibit radio spectral indices typical of SFGs. Furthermore, we identify a population of radio-only sources with similar indices that may correspond to high-redshift SFGs, lacking counterparts in the FIR survey due to its limited resolution and sensitivity.

The common envelope (CE) phase plays a key role in the formation of binary compact object systems. Its final outcome strongly depends on the envelope binding energy, but this quantity is often estimated using fitting formulas that are not fully consistent with the underlying stellar evolution models adopted in population-synthesis codes. Here, we investigate envelope binding energies across the most extensive stellar grid considered to date. Our stellar tracks, evolved with PARSEC v2.0, include hydrogen (H)-rich stars with metallicities ranging from Z = 10 −11 (Population III stars) to Z = 0.03, and initial masses between 2 and 2000 M ⊙ , as well as pure-helium stars with masses from 0.36 to 350 M ⊙ . We examine the sensitivity of the envelope binding energies to the selected core-envelope boundary definition and to different internal energy source contributions. For H-rich stars, we find that internal energy sources can alter the envelope binding energy by more than an order of magnitude, whereas the core boundary criteria play a secondary role. In contrast, for pure helium stars, the core-boundary criterion becomes the dominant factor. The envelope binding energies derived from different stellar tracks can show deviations of several orders of magnitude, with larger differences for more massive stars and higher metallicities. Finally, by implementing our new envelope binding energy prescriptions into the binary population synthesis code SEVN , we show that the predicted merger rate densities of compact binaries can differ by more than an order of magnitude compared to previous models. Our results highlight the importance of using envelope binding energies that are consistent with the underlying stellar evolution models and caution against extrapolating empirical fits beyond the considered parameter space.

We present the optimized version of ViSta, a visibility-domain stacking method that combines interferometric observations in the Fourier domain from radio to sub-millimeter wavelengths. By stacking visibilities directly and transforming them into the rest frame, ViSta enhances the signal, suppresses noise, and improves image reconstruction through extended uv-coverage. ViSta outperforms image stacking when individual sources are too faint to detect, achieving higher SNR in the low-signal and extended regime. This new optimized version features a C++/OpenMP kernel which replaces CASA demanding functions, enabling GPU acceleration while minimising memory usage and intermediate data products. The method is highly flexible, allowing stacking regardless of array configuration, spectral setup, or telescope. In the SKA era, where visibilities will not be routinely preserved, ViSta helps in assessing the information lost in the image-plane transition and in exploiting the vast amount of data still stored in interferometric archives.

Providing robust redshift estimates for almost 3 million luminous red galaxies (LRGs), the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) offers a unique opportunity to test the expansion rate of the Universe with independent approaches. We apply the cosmic chronometer method to derive new, independent constraints on the Hubble parameter at 0.3<z<1.2 from the differential age evolution of DESI LRGs. We select spectra applying spectroscopic cuts to ensure sample purity and remove contamination by star-forming objects, then build a robust sample of cosmic chronometers (CCs) by stacking to obtain stable, high signal-to-noise (S/N) spectra, which also serves as a democratic binning choice for the t-z plane. Ages are estimated by measuring Lick indices on the stacked spectra and fitting them with a theoretical stellar population model. We obtain t-z relations from which we derive H(z) constraints via two independent approaches: a fit with a pivotal-redshift cosmography, and a direct estimate from the original CC method. The cosmographic fit yields posteriors for the kinematic parameters {H_z_0, q_z_0, j_z_0} compatible with currently considered cosmologies, giving a precision-level estimate of H(z). We provide the maximum-a-posteriori (MAP) H(z) estimate, an array of the median confidence region in the H-z plane, and its covariance matrix. We also leverage the redshift distributions of the t-z relation for different velocity dispersion groups to obtain two independent local measurements using the discrete approximation H(z) ≈ -Δz/[Δt (1+z)]; the one from the reddest envelope of CCs gives H(z ≈ 0.61) = 88.5^+6.7_-12.6 (stat.) ± 8.1 (syst.) km s^-1 Mpc^-1. Systematic uncertainties for both the cosmographic and discrete H(z) measurements come from a comprehensive analysis of all methodological choices in the data treatment.

The evolution of the supermassive Black Hole (BH) population across cosmic times remains a central unresolved issue in modern astrophysics, due to the many noticeable uncertainties in the involved physical processes that span a huge range of spatial, temporal and energy scales. Here we tackle the problem via a semi-empirical approach with minimal assumptions and data-driven inputs. This is based on a continuity plus Smoluchowski equation framework that allows to unitarily describe the two primary modes of BH growth: gas accretion and binary mergers. Key quantities related to the latter processes are incorporated through educated parameterizations, and then constrained in a Bayesian setup from joint observational estimates of the local BH mass function, of the large-scale BH clustering, and of the nano-Hz stochastic gravitational wave (GW) background measured from Pulsar Timimg Array (PTA) experiments. We find that the BH accretion-related parameters are strongly dependent on the local BH mass function determination: higher normalizations and flatter high-mass slopes in the latter imply lower radiative efficiencies and mean Eddington ratios with a stronger redshift evolution. Additionally, the binary BH merger rate is estimated to be a fraction less than or similar to 10-1 of the galaxy merger rate derived from galaxy pairs counts by JWST, and constrained not to exceed the latter at greater than or similar to 2 sigma. Relatedly, we highlight hints of a possible tension between current constraints on BH demographics and the interpretation of the nano-Hz GW background as predominantly caused by binary BH mergers. Specifically, we bound the latter's contribution to less than or similar to 30-50% at similar to 3 sigma, suggesting that either systematics in the datasets considered here have been underestimated so far, or that additional astrophysical/cosmological sources are needed to explain the residual part of the signal measured by PTA experiments.

We extend our study of a cosmological scenario in which dark matter is non-minimally coupled to gravity at the fluid level. In previous work, we showed that this interaction can drive an early phase of accelerated expansion, addressing the horizon and flatness problems, and can also lead to a cosmological bounce in the presence of spatial curvature. Here we analyse the evolution of linear perturbations in this framework. We derive the equations governing scalar, vector and tensor perturbations, and obtain analytic solutions in the relevant cosmological regimes. We find that perturbations generated during the accelerated expansion phase produce a strongly blue scalar power spectrum and are therefore incompatible with observations. By contrast, in bouncing solutions primordial fluctuations can originate during the contracting phase before the bounce. In this case, the model yields an approximately scale-invariant scalar power spectrum while keeping the tensor-to-scalar ratio compatible with current bounds, without introducing additional scalar fields. Although our treatment relies on simplifying approximations that should be refined in future work, these results indicate that non-minimally coupled dark matter may provide a viable alternative mechanism for the generation of primordial cosmological perturbations.

Recent James Webb Space Telescope ( JWS T ) observations have un veiled a numerous population of low-luminosity active galactic nuclei (AGNs) at 4 less than or similar to z less than or similar to 10 , with space densities roughly an order of magnitude above pre- JWST estimates, and many of these AGNs have masses orders of magnitude above the local black hole mass-stellar mass ( M- BH -M-* ) scaling relations. We inv estigat e the consistency of these observations within a data-driv en framew ork that links the galaxy stellar mass function to the supermassive black hole (SMBH) mass function and AGN luminosity functions using different M- BH -M-* relations and the observ ed Eddingt on-ratio distribution. B y comparing our pr edictions ag ainst observed AGN luminosity functions at z similar to 5 . 5 we find that observations can be r epr oduced either by highly elevated M BH - M relations paired with low duty cycles (f(AGN) similar to 0 . 08 ), or moderate relations with higher duty cycles ( f(AGN) similar to 0 . 5 ). Through the So & lstrok;tan argument, we find that M BH -M relations that are modestly above the local relation for AGNs produce consistency between multiple tracers of the SMBH demography at z similar to 5 . 5 , while more extreme normalizations would require a weakly evolving luminosity function at z >= 5 . 5 . Continuity-equation modelling shows that initially high M- BH -M-* relations pr edict a str ong tw o-phase ev olutionary scenario and v ery st eep low-mass SMBH mass functions in t ension with sev eral curr ent estimates, while mor e moderate r elations generate local SMBH mass functions in better agreement with present determinations and near-constant scaling relations. Our results favour a scenario where SMBHs at z similar to 5 on average lie modestly above local AGN scaling relations, with elevated but physically plausible duty cycles. Future wide-field clustering and demographic studies will help break the remaining degeneracies between SMBH scaling relations and AGN duty cycles at early cosmic times.

We provide a review on semi-empirical models of galaxy formation and evolution. We present a brief census of the three main modeling approaches to galaxy evolution, namely hydrodynamical simulations, semi-analytic models, and semi-empirical models (SEMs). We focus on SEMs in their different flavors, i.e. interpretative, descriptive and hybrid, discussing the peculiarities and highlighting virtues and shortcomings for each of these variants. We dissect a simple and recent hybrid SEM from our team to highlight some technical aspects. We offer some outlook on the prospective developments of SEMs. Finally, we provide a short summary of this review.

Pair-instability supernovae (PISNe) are among the most luminous transients in the Universe. However, they have never been confidently observed. Solving this puzzle would have key implications for several astrophysical topics, including galaxy chemical enrichment, the interpretation of gravitational waves from binary black hole mergers, and the nature of red dropout sources seen by JWST. With this aim, we present the first in-depth study of PISN occurrence in binary stars, both in isolation and in dense star clusters. We employ the SEVN code, with PARSEC stellar tracks, to evolve a suite of 35 synthetic binary populations, including variations on formation channels, cluster properties, and upper limit of the stellar initial mass function. We find that binary interactions can boost the PISN rate by up to threefold, relative to single stars, whereas binary hardening can either enhance or suppress PISN production, depending on whether the progenitors are primordial or dynamically formed. Moreover, we showcase how our comprehensive framework for the cosmic PISN rate can be used to constrain uncertain aspects of stellar and galaxy evolution models, via comparison with observations, including the recipes for stellar-wind mass loss in very-massive stars, and the galaxy metallicity distribution throughout the Universe.

Recent JWST observations have unveiled a numerous population of low-luminosity active galactic nuclei (AGN) at 4< z<10, with space densities roughly an order of magnitude above pre-JWST estimates, and many of these AGN have masses orders of magnitude above the local black hole mass-stellar mass (M_ BH-M_*) scaling relations. We investigate the consistency of these observations within a data-driven framework that links the galaxy stellar mass function to the supermassive black hole (SMBH) mass function and AGN luminosity functions using different M_ BH-M_* relations and the observed Eddington-ratio distribution. By comparing our predictions against observed AGN luminosity functions at z∼ 5.5 we find that observations can be reproduced either by highly-elevated M_ BH-M_* relations paired with low duty cycles, or moderate relations with higher duty cycles. Through the Soltan argument, we find that M_ BH-M_* relations that are modestly above the local relation for AGN produce consistency between multiple tracers of the SMBH demography at z∼ 5.5, while more extreme normalisations would require a weakly-evolving luminosity function at z> 5.5. Continuity-equation modelling shows that initially high M_ BH-M_* relations predict a strong two-phase evolutionary scenario and very steep low-mass SMBH mass functions in tension with several current estimates, while more moderate relations generate local SMBH mass functions in better agreement with present determinations and near-constant scaling relations. Our results favour a scenario where SMBHs at z ∼ 5 on average lie modestly above local AGN scaling relations, with elevated but physically plausible duty cycles. Future wide-field clustering and demographic studies will help break the remaining degeneracies between SMBH scaling relations and AGN duty cycles at early cosmic times.

Aims. JWST has measured an unprecedented abundance of galaxies above redshift z greater than or similar to 4 - 5, whose formation and evolution are still difficult to reconcile within traditional galaxy evolution models in a Lambda Cold Dark Matter (Lambda CDM) framework. Here we present a study on the star formation histories of these high-redshift galaxies between z similar or equal to 5 - 12 via a cutting-edge data-driven semi-empirical model that uses the observed ultra-violet (UV) luminosity functions (LFs) as input to retrieve star formation rates (SFRs), naturally bypassing any uncertain modelling of cooling, feedback and/or stochastic processes. Methods. Galaxy stellar masses are progressively built in time by integrating their SFRs assigned along their progenitor haloes via the SFR-halo accretion rate relation, derived from abundance matching between the input observed UV LFs with the dark matter halo accretion rate distributions at each redshift. Our original method reverse-engineers empirical estimates of the high-z galactic SFRs directly from observations via abundance matching rather than fitting observed LFs with parametric star formation efficiencies (SFEs). This makes the SFEs a full prediction of the model rather than a tuned input, serving as a solid baseline to test burstiness, dust attenuation, or initial mass function variations. Results. Our approach reproduces the total stellar mass function, the large-scale clustering, and the star-forming main sequence. We find that massive galaxies grew their stellar mass with a bursty star formation at z similar to 9 - 10, broadly in agreement with the star formation histories inferred from spectral energy distribution fitting, with the SFE reaching high peaks of 0.8 - 0.9 at z > 9 and lowering to standard values of 0.2 - 0.3 below z less than or similar to 9. We find that the presence of dust could enhance the predicted SFRs at z less than or similar to 8, better reproducing the observed SFRs of massive dusty galaxies, and increase the SFEs to values close to or even above unity at z greater than or similar to 8. Finally, switching to top-heavy initial mass functions reduces the SFEs by a factor of 2 - 3, highlighting the need for a variable initial mass function as an inevitable ingredient in the evolution of galaxies at high redshifts to avoid unphysical SFEs, especially in the presence of dust.

We present the computational design and implementation of GalaPy, a hybrid C++/Python library for the spectral energy distribution (SED) modelling of galaxies. Originally introduced in Ronconi et al. (2024), GalaPy has been developed within the Italian galaxy formation and cosmology community as part of the ICSC-Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data e Quantum Computing. The library combines the performance of compiled C++ routines with the flexibility of Python, enabling efficient generation and fitting of physically motivated SED models. We describe the object-oriented architecture of the code, its hybrid parallelisation strategy, and the optimisations that ensure portability and minimal memory overhead. Parallel execution relies on a combination of vectorised array programming, shared-memory concurrency, and distributed-memory message passing. Recent updates include Bayesian evidence-based model selection and a fully analytical, panchromatic active galactic nucleus component. These additions further improve the physical realism and the statistical power of the framework. GalaPy thus provides a modular and extensible platform for galaxy modelling, designed to interface and adapt seamlessly to the next generation of large-scale astrophysical analyses.

Upcoming radio surveys will probe the sky with unprecedented depth and sky coverage, enabling a broad range of cosmological and astrophysical applications, as well as powerful synergies with experiments at other wavelengths. The preparation and scientific exploitation of these surveys require realistic mock catalogues that capture the complexity of the radio sky and the interplay of its emitting components. We present a modular and extensible algorithm for generating empirical simulations over the full radio sky, i.e. a solid angle of 4π steradians (f_ sky=1), down to redshift z=5, comprising both radio continuum and line emission. The framework combines a simulated dark-matter light-cone with empirically sampled galaxy populations and a probabilistic galaxy-halo assignment scheme, producing self-consistent mock catalogues including multiple radio populations on the same light-cone. We release two public catalogues: a shallow catalogue, fully constrained by existing observational data and limited to flux thresholds of S_1.4 GHz^lim∼ 8×10^-5 Jy at 1.4 GHz and S_21^lim∼ 2 Jy·Hz for the HI 21 cm line; and a deep catalogue extending the calibrated empirical model to better sensitivities, broadly matching future SKAO surveys, with flux limits of S_1.4 GHz^lim∼ 4×10^-5 Jy and S_21^lim∼ 0.3 Jy·Hz. The catalogues include radio continuum active galactic nuclei and star-forming galaxies, together with HI-emitting galaxies, for a total of more than 260 million sources in the shallow catalogue and more than 1 billion in the deep catalogue. We validate the simulations by analysing their statistical properties: the mocks reproduce the targeted clustering and population statistics while retaining minimal physical assumptions.

We apply the caustic technique to samples of galaxy clusters stacked in redshift space to estimate the gravitational potential in the cluster's outer region and test modifications to the standard theory of gravity. We separate 122 galaxy clusters from the HeCS-SZ, HeCS-redMapper, and HeCS samples into four samples with increasing mass; we estimate four robust, highly constraining caustic profiles for these samples. The caustic masses of the four stacked clusters agree within 10% with the corresponding median values of each cluster sample. By adopting the NFW density profile to model the gravitational potential, we recover the caustic profile 𝒜(r) up to radius r_ p∼ 4.0 Mpc. This comparison is a first-order validation of the mass-concentration relation for galaxy clusters expected in the ΛCDM model. We thus impose this correlation as a prior in our analysis. Based on our stacked clusters, we estimate the value of the filling factor, which enters the caustic technique, ℱ_β = 0.59± 0.05; we derive this value using real data alone and find it consistent with the value usually adopted in the literature. We then use the caustic profiles 𝒜(r) of the stacked clusters to constrain the chameleon gravity model. We find that the caustic profiles provide a stringent upper limit of |f_ R0| ≲ 4 × 10^-6 at 95% C.L. limits in the f(ℛ) scenario. The formalism developed here shall be further refined to test modifications to gravity in the extended outer weak gravitational regions of galaxy clusters.

In a series of recent papers we put forward a “fractional gravity” framework striking an intermediate course between a modified gravity theory and an exotic dark matter (DM) scenario, which envisages the DM component in virialized halos to feel a non-local interaction mediated by gravity. The remarkable success of this model in reproducing several aspects of DM phenomenology motivates us to look for a general relativistic extension. Specifically, we propose a theory, dubbed Relativistic Scalar Fractional Gravity or RSFG, in which the trace of the DM stress-energy tensor couples to the scalar curvature via a non-local operator constructed with a fractional power of the d'Alembertian. We derive the field equations starting from an action principle, and then we investigate their weak field limit, demonstrating that in the Newtonian approximation the fractional gravity setup of our previous works is recovered. We compute the first-order post-Newtonian parameter γ and its relation with weak lensing, showing that although in RSFG the former deviates from its GR values of unity, the latter is unaffected. We also perform a standard scalar-vector-tensor-decomposition of RSFG in the weak field limit, to highlight that gravitational waves propagate at the speed of light, though also an additional scalar mode becomes dynamical. Finally, we derive the modified conservation laws of the DM stress energy tensor in RSFG, showing that a new non-local force emerges, and hence that the DM fluid deviates from the geodesic solutions of the field equations.

We build a semiempirical framework of galaxy evolution (dubbed StAGE ) firmly grounded on stellar archaeology. The latter provides data-driven prescriptions that, on a population statistical ground, allow us to define the age and the star formation history for the progenitors of quiescent galaxies (QGs). We exploit StAGE to compute the cosmic star formation rate (SFR) density contributed by the progenitors of local QGs, and show it to remarkably agree with that estimated for high- z dusty star-forming galaxies which are faint/dark in the near-infrared (NIR), so pointing toward a direct progenitor-descendant connection among these galaxy populations. Furthermore, we argue that by appropriately correcting the observed stellar mass density by the contribution of such NIR-dark progenitors, StAGE recovers a SFR density which is consistent with direct determinations from UV/IR/radio surveys, so substantially alleviating a longstanding tension. Relatedly, we also show how StAGE can provide the average mass and metal assembly history of QGs, and their redshift-dependent statistics. Focusing on the supermassive black holes (BHs) hosted by massive QGs, we exploit StAGE to reconstruct the average BH mass assembly history, the cosmic BH accretion rate density as a function of redshift, and the evolution of the Magorrian-like relationship between the relic stellar and BH masses. All in all, StAGE may constitute a valuable tool to understand via a data-driven, easily expandable, and computationally low-cost approach the coevolution of QGs and of their hosted supermassive BHs across cosmic times.

In this paper we present quasi equilibrium models of black hole-neutron star (BHNS) binaries with mass and spin values compatible with parameter estimates derived from gravitational radiation events GW200105 and GW200115, events consistent with the merger of BHNSs. Using the FUKA initial data framework, we determine the location of ISCO (Innermost Stable Circular Orbit) and radius of mass shedding. In most of the cases studied here the innermost stable orbit is located at larger separations. This is consistent with the fact that for those two events no electromagnetic counterparts have been observed since it is believed that the NS will enter into the plunge phase in a short time once the separation of the components of the binary will be smaller of ISCO. In analogy with classical binaries, we have associated to these QE sequences a Newtonian and Post Newtonian Roche Lobe analysis to verify whether the NS is filling its Roche Lobe before approaching the ISCO. For selected configurations explored here, the location of ISCO and of the orbit at which mass shedding occurs are at separation smaller than the last converged solution of our sequences. Our analysis shows that in such cases the neutron star is filling its Roche lobe suggesting that mass transfer might occur well before encountering the last stable orbit, and this should happen in catastrophic way in order to prevent any electromagnetic emissions. If this is the case, we are suggestion a third fate of the neutron star beyond the plunge or tidal disruption ones.

Aims: The relative roles of the physical mechanisms involved in quenching galaxy star formation are still unclear. We tackle this fundamental problem with our cosmological semi-empirical model DECODE (Discrete statistical sEmi-empiriCal mODEl), designed to predict galaxy stellar mass assembly histories, from minimal input assumptions. Methods: Specifically, in this work the star formation history of each galaxy is calculated along its progenitor dark matter halo by assigning at each redshift a star formation rate extracted from a monotonic star formation rate-halo accretion rate (SFR-HAR) relation derived from abundance matching between the (observed) SFR function and the (numerically predicted) HAR function, a relation that is also predicted by the TNG100 simulation. SFRs are integrated across cosmic time to build up the mass of galaxies, which may halt their star formation following input physical quenching recipes. Results: In this work we test the popular halo quenching scenario and we find that: 1) the assumption of a monotonic relation between SFR and HAR allows to reproduce the number densities of the bulk of star-forming galaxies in the local Universe; 2) the halo quenching is sufficient to reproduce the statistics of the quenched galaxies and flat (steep) high-mass end of the SMHM relation (SMF); and 3) to align with the observed steep (flat) low-mass end of the SMHM (SMF) additional quenching processes in the least massive haloes are needed. Conclusions: DECODE is an invaluable tool and will pave the way to investigate the origin of newly observed high-redshift objects from the latest ongoing facilities such as JWST and Euclid.

The correlations between supermassive black holes (SMBHs) and their host galaxies still defy our understanding from both the observational and theoretical perspectives. Here, we perform pairwise residual analysis on the latest sample of local inactive galaxies with a uniform calibration of their photometric properties and with dynamically measured masses of their central SMBHs. The residuals reveal that stellar velocity dispersion $\sigma$ and, possibly host dark matter halo mass M-halo, appear as the galactic properties most correlated with SMBH mass, with a secondary (weaker) correlation with spheroidal (bulge) mass, as also corroborated by additional machine learning tests. These findings may favour energetic/kinetic feedback from active galactic nuclei (AGNs) as the main driver in shaping SMBH scaling relations. Two state-of-the-art hydrodynamic simulations, inclusive of kinetic AGN feedback, are able to broadly capture the mean trends observed in the residuals, although they tend to either favour M(sph )as the most fundamental property, or generate too flat residuals. Increasing AGN feedback kinetic output does not improve the comparison with the data. In the Appendix, we also show that the galaxies with dynamically measured SMBHs are biased high in $\sigma$ at fixed luminosity with respect to the full sample of local galaxies, proving that this bias is not a by-product of stellar mass discrepancies. Overall, our results suggest that probing the SMBH-galaxy scaling relations in terms of total stellar mass alone may induce biases, and that either current data sets are incomplete, and/or that more insightful modelling is required to fully reproduce observations.