The transition from socialism to a market economy in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) brought significant societal and economic disruptions. While the shift restructured economies and integrated the region into the broader European market, it left a legacy of hardship that continues to shape individuals' lives. This study adopts a life-course perspective to examine how extended employment gaps, financial hardship and significant stress during the transition years (1987-93) have influenced work trajectories over a 31-year period in 11 CEE countries. Using retrospective data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (N = 10,999), we apply sequence analysis and multinomial logistic regression to assess these associations. Among men, both an extended employment gap and financial hardship during the transition increased the risk of later unemployment, while significant stress increased the risk of health-related labour market withdrawal. Among women, fewer significant effects were observed, with the most notable being a heightened risk of unemployment following an extended employment gap. These findings offer new insights into the long-term consequences of the post-socialist transition and, more broadly, into how economic crises and social upheaval can shape working lives. This emphasizes the critical role of a life-course perspective in shaping policies that aim to mitigate long-term unemployment risks and ensure more equitable pathways to labour market exit.

Increasingly, older adults are redefining retirement by combining part-time employment with pension benefits, that is, becoming ‘working retirees’. This trend highlights socio-economic inequalities: some working retirees use part-time employment as a bridge to full retirement, while others must remain employed to prevent old-age poverty. However, little is known about how these work-retirement transitions unfold over time or the socio-economic factors that shape them. This knowledge gap is problematic because understanding the socio-demographic influences on these trajectories is essential for addressing inequalities in later-life employment and retirement security. This study examines transitions from work to retirement by following individuals from their 50s into their 70s and analysing the socio-demographic factors that differentiate these trajectories. It identifies the various pathways that older workers take when exiting the labour force and analyses how prior life course factors – including education, occupational status, career field, civil status, number of children and disposable income – predict the likelihood of following each work–retirement trajectory. The results reveal two distinct work–retirement trajectories: one reflects status maintenance, with higher income and education, white-collar and often men; the other reflects financial necessity, with lower income, children at home, no partner and often women. More advantaged working retirees experience greater employment changes in late life, highlighting the diversity of late-life careers. These findings suggest a broader range of extended work–life pathways than previously recognized and emphasize the need for policies that account for gendered and economic disparities in work and family responsibilities to ensure equitable and sustainable retirement transitions.

While a vast number of studies confirm the transmission of labour-market disadvantages from one generation to the next, less is known about how parents’ interconnected labour-market pathways co-evolve and shape the opportunities and obstacles for their children’s future careers. This study uses a multidimensional view of intergenerational transmission by describing the most typical pathways of parents’ occupational careers and assesses how these patterns are associated with their children’s labour-market outcomes. Drawing on Swedish longitudinal register data, we used multichannel sequence analysis to follow a cohort of people born in 1985 (n = 72,409) and their parents across 26 years. We identified four parental earning models, differentiating between (1) dual earners with high wages, (2) dual earners with low-wage, (3) one-and-a-half-earners and (4) mother as the main breadwinner. Regression analysis shows strong intergenerational transmission among the most advantageous trajectories, with education as a key determinant for young people to become less dependent on family resources. This study stresses the importance of intra-couple perspectives in life course research to understand how inequalities are shaped and preserved across generations.

While a prolonged working life has been mainly feasible for people with the most advantageous working careers, knowledge about the barriers for those with vulnerable occupational paths is still scarce. This study explores the conditions for prolonged working life from a perspective on labor market trajectories. Drawing from a gendered life course perspective and that (dis)advantageous tends to accumulate over time, we investigate the opportunity structure for the most disadvantaged workers and which characteristics of labor market trajectories can explain the decision to work longer. To this end, a Swedish longitudinal survey and register data from the Panel Survey of Ageing and the Elderly (PSAE) were used, following people across a substantial part of their working life. With sequence analysis, we identified 5 trajectories that represent typical labor market trajectories from mid-life until retirement age. Our findings showed that labor market precarity in mid-life remained a key characteristic until the expected retirement age, showing both early signs of early labor market exit and a precarity trap into a prolonged working life. These findings emphasize the need to identify at-risk groups early in their careers and that mid-life interventions are needed to prevent involuntary labor market exits and to ensure a sustainable working life. In particular, the need to protect older workers with turbulent or precarious labor market trajectories against labor market risks and retirement schemes that could inadvertently contribute to increased social and economic inequality in later life.

Labour market disadvantages tend to run in families: children who grow up with parents who experience job losses or receive low wages are themselves at higher risk of experiencing labour market difficulties. However, little is known about the intergenerational transmission for those who manage to escape from precariousness, and how the transmission of labour market disadvantage operates depending on the gender structure of parent-child dyads. The present study uses Swedish register data and longitudinal methods that follow a cohort of people born in 1985 (n = 72,409) and their parents across 26 years. Our findings show that children who experienced parental employment disadvantages had the most severe labour market disadvantages later in life. However, if the employment situations of their parents improved, they were somewhat more likely to follow a more stable, high-wage career path compared to children whose parents experienced more persistent forms of disadvantage, such as long-term unemployment or severe labour market instability. We also show that the mother's labour market disadvantages were an important determinant of the future labour market career of her child, regardless of gender. This finding underscores the need to go beyond the analysis of father-son dyads in intergenerational research.

•Experiencing early employment disadvantage could lead to long-term labour market instability and labour market exclusion.•Migrants showed more turbulent transitions between labour market states than natives.•Belonging to a turbulent labour market trajectory is association with poor mental ill health in mid-life.

BackgroundPrevious studies have shown that unemployment has negative impacts on various aspects of health. However, little is known about the effect of unemployment on health-related quality of life. Our aim was to examine how unemployment impacts upon health-related quality of life among Swedish adults, and to investigate these effects on population subgroups defined by education level, marital status, previous health, and gender.MethodsAs part of a cross-sectional study, a questionnaire was sent to 2500 randomly selected individuals aged 20 to 64years living in Sweden in 2016. The questionnaire included the EuroQol 5 dimensions (EQ-5D) instrument and was answered by 967 individuals (39%). Quality-adjusted life year (QALY) scores were derived from the EQ-5D responses. Of the respondents, 113 were unemployed and 724 were employed. We used inverse probability-weighted propensity scores in our analyses to estimate a risk difference. Gender, age, education level, marital status, and previous health were used as covariates in our analyses.ResultsThere was a statistically significant lower QALY score by 0.096 points for the unemployed compared to the employed. There were also statistically significant more problems due to unemployment for usual activities (6.6% more), anxiety/depression (23.6% more), and EQ-5D's Visual Analogue Scale (7.5 point lower score). Grouped analyses indicated a larger negative health effect from becoming unemployed for men, those who are married, and young individuals.ConclusionsIn our study, we show that the health deterioration from unemployment is likely to be large, as our estimated effect implies an almost 10% worse health (in absolute terms) from being unemployed compared to being employed. This further highlights that unemployment is a public health problem that needs more focus. Our study also raises further demands for determining for whom unemployment has the most negative effects and thus suggesting groups of individuals who are in greatest need for labor market measures.

The increasing mental health inequalities between native- and foreign-born persons in Sweden is an important public health issue. Improving social integration has been stressed as a key strategy to combat this development. While a vast amount of studies have confirmed the importance of social integration for good mental health, less is known about the role of different types of social integration, and how they relate to mental health inequalities. This study aimed to examine the extent to which indicators of social integration explained mental health inequalities between the native- and foreign-born. Based on the Health on Equal Terms survey from 2011/2015 in Västra Götaland, Sweden (n = 71,643), a non-linear Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition analysis was performed comparing native- and foreign-born individuals from Nordic-, European- and non-European countries. The General Health Questionnaire was used to assess psychological distress, while 11 items assessed employment conditions and economic disparities, social relations, and experiences of discrimination to measure different aspects of social integration. Differences in social integration explained large proportions of observed mental health differences between the native- and foreign-born. Important indicators included low levels of social activity (20%), trust in others (17%) and social support (16%), but also labour market disadvantages, such as being outside the labour market (15%), unemployment (10%) and experiencing financial strain (16%). In analyses stratified by region of origin, low trust in others and discrimination contributed to the mental health gap between the native-born and European-born (17 and 9%, respectively), and the native-born and non-European-born (19 and 10%, respectively). Precarious labour market position was a particularly important factor in the mental health gap between the native-born and Nordic-origin (22%), and non-European origin (36%) populations. Social integration factors play a central role in explaining the mental health inequality between natives and migrants in Sweden. Our findings suggest that public health actions targeting mental health gaps could benefit from focusing on inequalities in social and economic recourses between natives and migrants in Sweden. Areas of priority include improving migrants’ financial strain, as well as increasing trust in others and social support and opportunities for civic engagement.

Background: Even though population health is strongly influenced by employment and working conditions, public health research has to a lesser extent explored the social determinants of health inequalities between people in different positions on the labour market, and whether these social determinants vary across the life course. This study analyses mental health inequalities between unemployed and employed in three age groups (youth, adulthood and mid-life), and identifies the extent to which social determinants explain the mental health gap between employed and unemployed in northern Sweden. Methods: The Health on Equal Terms survey of 2014 was used, with self-reported employment (unemployed or employed) as exposure and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) as mental health outcome. The social determinants of health inequalities were grouped into four dimensions: socioeconomic status, economic resources, social network and trust in institutional systems. The non-linear Oaxaca decomposition analysis was applied, stratified by gender and age groups. Results: Mental health inequality was found in all age groups among women and men (difference in GHQ varying between 0.12 and 0.20). The decomposition analysis showed that the social determinants included in the model accounted for 43-51% of the inequalities among youths, 42-98% of the inequalities among adults and 60-65% among middle-aged. The main contributing factors were shown to vary between age groups: cash margin (among youths and middle-aged men), financial strain (among adults and middle-aged women), income (among men in adulthood), along with trust in others (all age groups), practical support (young women) and social support (middle-aged men); stressing how the social determinants of health inequalities vary across the life course. Conclusions: The health gap between employed and unemployed was explained by the difference in access to economic and social resources, and to a smaller extent in the trust in the institutional systems. Findings from this study corroborate that much of the mental health inequality in the Swedish labour market is socially and politically produced and potentially avoidable. Greater attention from researchers, policy makers on unemployment and public health should be devoted to the social and economic deprivation of unemployment from a life course perspective to prevent mental health inequality.

BACKGROUND:While a vast amount of studies confirm the social reproduction of class and status from one generation to the next, less is known about the role of health in the child generation for these processes. Research has shown that particularly mental distress in adolescence is important for future life chances. This study aimed to examine the importance of parental socioeconomic position and depressive symptoms in youth for life-course trajectories of education and labour market attachment among men and women.METHODS:Based on four waves of questionnaire data from the Northern Swedish Cohort (n = 1,001), consisting of individuals born in 1965, three steps of gender-separate analyses were undertaken. First, the individual trajectories of education and labour market attachment from age 18 to 42 were mapped through sequence analysis. Second, cluster analysis was used to identify typical trajectories. Third, two indicators of parental socioeconomic position - occupational class and employment status - and depressive symptoms at age 16 were used in multinomial regression analyses to predict adult life-course trajectories.RESULTS:Four typical trajectories were identified for men, of which three were characterised by stable employment and various lengths of education, and the fourth reflected a more unstable situation. Among women, five trajectories emerged, characterised by more instability compared to men. Low parental occupational class and unemployment were significantly associated with a higher risk of ending up in less advantaged trajectories for men while, for women, this was only the case for occupational class. Youth levels of depressive symptoms did not significantly differ across the trajectories.CONCLUSIONS:This study found support for the intergenerational reproduction of social position, particularly when measured in terms of parental occupational class. Youth depressive symptoms did not show clear differences across types of trajectories, subsequently impeding such symptoms to trigger any selection processes. While this could be a consequence of the specific framework of the current study, it may also suggest that depressive symptoms in youth are not a root cause for the more complex processes through which how social position develops across life. The possible impact of welfare and labour market policies is discussed.

BACKGROUND:The impact of macroeconomic conditions on health has been extensively explored, as well as the relationship between individual unemployment and health. There are, however, few studies taking both aspects into account and even fewer studies looking at the relationship in a life course perspective. In this study the aim was to assess the role of macroeconomic conditions, such as national unemployment level, for the long-term relationship between individual unemployment and functional somatic symptoms (FSS), by analysing data from two longitudinal cohorts representing different periods of unemployment level in Sweden.METHODS:A difference-in-difference (DiD) analysis was applied, looking at the difference over time between recession and pre-recession periods for unemployed youths (age 21 to 25) on FSS in adulthood. FSS was constructed as an index of ten self-reported items of somatic ill-health. Covariates for socioeconomics, previous health status and social environment were included.RESULTS:An association was found in the difference of adult FSS between unemployed and employed youths in the pre-recession and recession periods, remaining in the adjusted model for the pre-recession period. The DiD analysis between unemployed youths showed that men had significantly lower adult FSS during the recession compared to men in the pre-recession time.CONCLUSIONS:Adulthood FSS showed to be significantly lower among unemployed youths, in particular among men, during recession compared to pre-recession times. Since this is a fairly unexplored research field, more research is needed to explore the role of macroeconomic conditions for various health outcomes, long-term implications and gender differences.

This study examines whether neighbourhood unemployment is related to functional somatic symptoms, independently of the individual employment, across the life course and at four specific life course periods (age 16, 21, 30 and 42). Self-reported questioner data was used from a 26-year prospective Swedish cohort (n=1010) with complementary neighbourhood register data. A longitudinal and a set of age-specific cross-sectional hierarchal linear regressions was carried out. The results suggest that living in a neighbourhood with high unemployment has implications for residents' level of functional somatic symptoms, regardless of their own unemployment across time, particularly at age 30.

BACKGROUND:Little is known about the possible long-term health consequences of youth unemployment. Research indicates that unemployment may lead to socioeconomic downward mobility and mental health problems, but we still lack knowledge of the long-term health consequences of youth unemployment. This article examines the potential long-term association between youth unemployment and functional somatic symptoms in adulthood.METHODS:The 'Northern Swedish cohort' was used with data from five data collections, from 1981 (age 16) until 2007 (age 42). Youth unemployment was measured as months in unemployment between age 16 and 21, and health outcome as functional somatic symptoms (an index of 10 items of self-reported symptoms). Linear regression was used to analyse the relationship between months in youth unemployment and functional somatic symptoms at age 21 and age 42, stratified for women and men and adjusted for potential confounders, such as time spent in education at age 21 and later unemployment between age 21 and 42.RESULTS:Youth unemployment was significantly related to functional somatic symptoms at age 21 for men after controlling for confounders, but not for women. Among men, the association remained for functional somatic symptoms at age 42, after controlling for confounders.CONCLUSIONS:Adolescence seems to be a sensitive period during which unemployment could have remaining health effects in adulthood, at least for men, though assumptions of causality are tentative and more research is needed.