ABSTRACT Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic pathogen causing severe respiratory and neurological disease in humans, with high fatality rates, primarily transmitted from fruit bats to humans through bat-tainted raw date palm sap and fruits. NiV outbreaks have occurred almost annually across 34 of 64 districts in Bangladesh. The study investigated the geodispersal patterns and evolutionary phylodynamics of NiV, aiding in more effective outbreak management strategies in Bangladesh. Phylodynamic and geographic evolutionary analyses were conducted using the nucleoprotein (N) gene sequence (n = 23) isolated from human and bat samples (2016–2023), along with publicly available NiV genomes up through November 2024. Bayesian evolutionary analysis of NiV spatiotemporal data suggested NiV clade expansion and the emergence of a new lineage, possibly driven by genetic mutations over time, and identified potential risk areas for NiV infections. The analysis revealed that Bangladeshi NiV strains diverged into two major lineages, BD-1 and BD-2, around 1984. BD-1 is split into NiV-BD1.1 and BD1.2 (first detected in 2004), while BD-2 emerged in 2008, later diverging into BD2.1 and BD2.2. As of 2023, most bat-derived NiV sequences belong to the BD-2 lineage. The estimated evolutionary rate of NiV in Bangladesh is 4.89 × 10⁻⁴ substitutions/site/year (95% HPD: 3.71 × 10⁻⁴ – 6.45 × 10⁻⁴), with genetic clusters spanning from 6.54 km to 116.09 km. Our findings highlight ongoing evolution, the emergence of sub-lineages, and the geographic expansion of NiV in Bangladesh, underscoring the value of phylogeographic approaches in guiding targeted surveillance and control strategies.IMPORTANCEA comprehensive understanding of the spread and evolution of the Nipah virus is critical, as it causes severe disease and frequent outbreaks in Bangladesh. This study provides a detailed look into how different strains of the Nipah virus have geographically moved and genetically changed over nearly two decades. By analyzing virus samples from fruit bats and infected human cases, the study reveals that the virus has formed two distinct sub-lineages, evolving separately at different times and regions of Bangladesh. Identifying these groups helps pinpoint areas most at risk for future outbreaks. These insights are important for identifying high-risk regions and informing surveillance priorities for early detection and preparedness, particularly in areas with recurring spillover events. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the importance of continuously monitoring Nipah virus evolution in both bats and humans, guiding public health strategies to manage and reduce the impact of this dangerous disease in Bangladesh and other regions.

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals is a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a global One Health challenge that threatens the interconnected health of humans, animals, and ecosystems. Hence, this study conducted to assess the association between farm-level biosecurity practices and antimicrobial use in commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 331 poultry farms (broiler: 113, layer: 103, Sonali: 115) across six districts from September to December 2021. A directed acyclic graph informed variable selection and generalized linear models (GLM) and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression were used to identify factors associated with antimicrobial use. Overall, 27.8% of farms reported antibiotic use on the day of the interview, and 49.2% had used antibiotics in the preceding 14 days. Antimicrobial use was significantly higher in rural farms and those with dirt floors or floor-based rearing systems. Higher odds of antimicrobial use were also linked to farmer education level, proximity to recent avian influenza outbreaks, unrestricted access of wild animal, and nearby crow roost. Conversely, farms implementing stronger biosecurity including isolating sick birds, and farms rearing layer birds and maintaining improved infrastructure reported significantly lower antibiotic use. These findings indicate that farm infrastructure, wildlife interfaces and hygiene practices are important correlates of antimicrobial use. Strengthening farm-level biosecurity, regulating antimicrobial access, and expanding veterinary extension services, especially in rural areas are critical to reduce antibiotic dependency and mitigating AMR risks. Establishing a national AMR surveillance framework that links animal, environmental, and human health sectors is essential to monitor resistance patterns and guide targeted policy interventions.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is an emerging vector-borne pathogen that significantly impacts the health and productivity of both domesticated and wild ruminants, leading to considerable economic losses. Its transmission via arthropod vectors raises concerns about potential geographic expansion, particularly to South Asia, including Bangladesh, where livestock farming plays a vital role in rural livelihoods. Hence, this study aimed to estimate the serological evidence of SBV exposure and identify associated risk factors in small ruminants in Bangladesh from January 2017 to June 2019. Individual animal characteristics were recorded using a structured questionnaire. A total of 517 serum samples were collected from randomly selected goats (n = 230) and sheep (n = 287) across three districts: Dhaka, Chattogram, and Faridpur, representing both market and household settings. Serum samples were screened using a commercial indirect multi-species ELISA to detect antibodies against the SBV nucleoprotein. The overall seroprevalence of SBV was 19.5% (101/517, 95% CI: 16.2-23.2), with sheep showing higher seropositivity at 30.0% (86/287, 95% CI: 24.7-35.6) compared to goats at 6.5% (15/230, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.7-10.5). In a multivariable logistic regression model, sheep had significantly higher odds of SBV seropositivity than goats (odds ratio [OR]: 6.4; 95% CI: 3.6-12.2; p  < 0.01). Animals drinking from pond water sources also had a greater risk than those using supplied water (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.2-4.5; p = 0.01). This study provides the first serological evidence of SBV exposure in small ruminants in Bangladesh. The findings underscore the need for targeted surveillance and improved biosecurity and management practices to reduce the risk of SBV transmission in the region.

Nipah virus (NiV) remains a persistent public-health threat in Bangladesh. The national sentinel surveillance system has operated since 2006, yet fatal infections that occur before assessment often go untested. We piloted a post-mortem surveillance component at three sentinel hospitals (December 2023-April 2024). Trained anthropologists obtained written informed consent from the next of kin. Oral swabs were collected non-invasively shortly after death and tested for NiV RNA by qRT-PCR at the national reference laboratory, using standard controls and established protocols. Specimens were handled in BSL-2 plus conditions on site and transported in liquid-nitrogen dry shippers per national SOPs. Where indicated by epidemiologic risk, shipments were prioritized for rapid testing. Of 246 deceased individuals screened, 10 met the suspected NiV case definition and were enrolled; all died after admission. One decedent tested NiV-positive (Ct value of 27.3), which activated same-day outbreak investigation by IEDCR's National Rapid Response Team. Contacts (close contacts and one same-source exposed individual) were traced and tested (RT-qPCR/IgM acutely; IgG at 6 weeks); no secondary cases were detected. Operational timelines (death → enrolment → collection → testing) demonstrated that post-mortem sampling and confirmation can be completed rapidly within routine hospital workflows. Post-mortem oral-swab testing is feasible, acceptable, and operationally compatible with Bangladesh's national surveillance system. While not intended to improve detection among living patients, this non-invasive approach closes a critical gap by identifying previously untested fatal infections and providing a trigger for timely public-health response. Scaling this approach across sentinel sites could strengthen early detection and outbreak control in NiV-affected regions.

ABSTRACT Background and Aims Among Paramyxoviruses (PMVs), measles virus (MeV) and human parainfluenza virus (HPIV) are major contributors to respiratory tract infections worldwide. Despite recurrent outbreaks of MeV and the significant health impact of HPIV, data on their molecular epidemiology and genetic diversity in Bangladesh remain scarce. This study aimed to detect and genetically characterize circulating MeV and HPIV strains among humans to better understand their distribution and genetic diversity. Methods We conducted this study as part of Global One Health Surveillance between 2017 and 2019 across three communities and one hospital in Bangladesh. We enrolled community participants, who had the potential to harbor viruses, and hospital participants with Influenza‐like illness (ILI). Survey data and biological specimens were collected to assess behavioral risk factors and virus spillovers. Samples were tested using consensus PCR, targeting the polymerase (pol) gene to detect PMV. Positive samples were confirmed by sequencing. Firth's logistic regression and phylogenetic analyses were used to evaluate associations and viral diversity. Results Overall PMV prevalence was 1.2% (n = 10; 95% CI: 0.5–2.1), while MeV and HPIV were the same: 0.58% (n = 5; 95% CI: 0.2–1.3). MeV was found in participants having symptoms of ILI (5/508), while HPIV was detected both in ILI cases (3/508) and in asymptomatic individuals (2/354), respectively. The multivariable model showed MeV was significantly associated with participants' age, livelihood, and season, while no association was seen for HPIV. Phylogenetic analysis revealed MeV‐D8 and B3, and HPIV‐1, 2, 3 circulating regionally and clustered with Asian strains, suggesting continued viral transmission and evolution. Conclusion Our study provides molecular characterization of the circulation of diverse MeV and HPIV strains in humans across Bangladesh. Despite their endemicity, continued surveillance concerning vaccination coverage and genome sequencing is recommended to better understand the spatiotemporal dynamics of these key respiratory viruses in humans.

Background:Since 2001, Bangladesh has experienced recurrent outbreaks of Nipah virus (NiV) infection. While acute-phase manifestations are well documented, long-term clinical and functional sequelae poorly characterized. Methods:We conducted a cross-sectional assessment of 52 adult NiV survivors in Bangladesh between November 2021 and February 2022 to document the persistence, severity, and functional impact of post infection symptoms. Symptom history, clinical evaluation, and functional status were assessed using structured questionnaires and the Washington Group Extended Set on Functioning (WG-ES). Findings:All the survivors reported fever during acute illness, with frequent symptoms including headache (71%), severe weakness (67%), and altered mental status (44%). Following recovery, survivors reported a wide range of symptoms including sleep disturbance (58%), gait disturbance (54%), chronic fatigue (52%), memory and concentration difficulties (54%) and myoclonus (48%). Neurological, musculoskeletal, and respiratory symptoms persisted with varying severity and chronicity. Functional assessments revealed notable disability in several domains, particularly anxiety (48%), mobility (31%), and cognition (25%). Although post-infection symptoms were common, 65% of survivors met criteria for disability in at least one functional domain, and 48% had disabilities across multiple domains. Interpretation:These findings highlight the substantial and enduring burden experienced by NiV survivors in Bangladesh. The range and persistence of sequelae in this cohort appear broader than previously documented in Malaysia-Singapore survivor studies; however, methodological differences limit formal comparison. As the largest clinical and functional assessment of NiV survivors to date, this study provides essential evidence to inform long-term care strategies and underscores the need for survivor-focused rehabilitation and monitoring in outbreak-prone settings. Funding:This study was supported by the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) (Grant No: GR-02160). The funding body had no role in the study design; data collection, management, analysis, or interpretation; writing of the manuscript; or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The views and conclusions expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and should not be construed as representing the official viewpoints of CEPI or the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Nipah virus (NiV), a high-risk pathogen with pandemic potential, causes near-annual outbreaks in Bangladesh. Since January 2025, the Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR) and icddr,b have investigated three NiV outbreaks.Table 1:Demographic, Epidemiological, and Clinical Findings of Nipah Cases in the 2025 Outbreaks in BangladeshTable 2:Laboratory Test Results of Nipah Cases in the 2025 Outbreaks in Bangladesh Structured and informal interviews with case families, contacts, and communities explored exposures, disease history, risk behaviors, possible spillover, and transmission routes. Oropharyngeal swabs and sera were tested in high-risk contacts and same-source exposed individuals for NiV RNA (RT-qPCR) and anti-NiV IgM (ELISA).Figure 1:Geospatial Mapping of Key Locations of the 2025 Nipah Outbreaks in Bangladesh Three sporadic NiV outbreaks were detected in urban or peri-urban areas of Pabna, Bhola (first-ever case), and Faridpur districts between January 29 and February 26 in 2025. All were primary cases linked to raw date palm sap (DPS) consumption. Bat roosts near source date palm trees (2-13 km) housed 20-500 Pteropus medius bats each. Cases tested NiV-positive within 4-11 days of symptom onset (incubation period: 3-13 days) and 2-3 days post-hospitalization (hospitalization lag time: 1-9 days). All presented with fever, varied neurological symptoms (seizure, blurry vision, altered sensorium, limb weakness), and respiratory distress, and died within 3-12 days of onset. We identified 244 contacts; 10 same-source exposures (raw DPS), of which 7 were also contacts. All 140 high-risk contacts and same-source exposed individuals tested NiV-negative. Investigations revealed widespread raw DPS consumption, even among the urban populations and beyond past outbreak areas, daytime harvesting for sweetness instead of overnight collection practice, and nighttime consumption in contrast to traditional morning intake. As in 2024, fatality in all 2025 NiV cases confirms sustained NiV virulence in Bangladesh. Widespread raw DPS consumption and delays in care-seeking highlight the critical need for community awareness. To map new exposure risks and comprehend community risk perception, further investigation is needed into evolving DPS collection and consumption practices. Surveillance at lower-tier facilities, developing local diagnostic capacity, and physician training could aid early detection, reduce diagnostic delays, and improve healthcare delivery and patient outcomes. All Authors: No reported disclosures

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) remains a significant healthcare challenge, primarily due to its toxin-mediated pathogenesis that results in severe gastrointestinal complications. This study investigates the inhibitory potential of bioactive compounds derived from Brassica oleracea L., specifically targeting the CDTa subunit of the binary toxin, using both computational and experimental approaches. Molecular docking analysis identified indolylmethyl glucosinolate (-9.1 kcal/mol) and indole-3-carbinol (-8.75 kcal/mol) as top candidates, demonstrating high binding affinities to the CDTa protein. Stability and dynamic behavior of the ligand-protein complexes were further assessed through 100-ns molecular dynamics simulations, which confirmed their stable interactions. Thermodynamic evaluations using MM-GBSA calculations revealed favorable binding free energies, supporting their potential as effective inhibitors. In parallel, the antibacterial efficacy of these compounds was validated through in vitro antibacterial assays, where indolylmethyl glucosinolate and indole-3-carbinol exhibited maximum inhibition zones of 23.33 ± 0.67 mm and 22.67 ± 0.33 mm, respectively, at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. In MIC and MBC assays, both compounds showed significant antibacterial activity, with indolylmethyl glucosinolate demonstrating slightly higher potency (MIC: 10.33 ± 0.72 μg/mL; MBC: 23.33 ± 1.36 μg/mL) than indole-3-carbinol (MIC: 11.33 ± 0.27 μg/mL; MBC: 26.67 ± 3.60 μg/mL). Additionally, PCA and DCCM revealed distinct conformational stabilization patterns and correlated motion of CDTa upon ligand binding, supporting a potential antivirulence interaction. Moreover, ADMET analysis revealed differences in their pharmacokinetic and toxicity profiles, providing further insights into their therapeutic potential. Overall, these findings suggest that B. oleracea-derived compounds exhibit a direct antibacterial activity against C. difficile while also demonstrating computationally supported inhibition of CDTa, indicating a complementary antivirulence mechanism that may contribute to their therapeutic potential in CDI.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an emerging public health challenge globally, with poultry production recognized as a major contributor due to widespread and often indiscriminate use of antimicrobials. In Bangladesh, limited evidence remains on the social, economic, and behavioral factors shaping antimicrobial use at the farm level. Hence, this study aimed to explore the underlying drivers of antimicrobials in commercial poultry farms and to understand farmers' perceptions and decision-making process in antimicrobial use. We conducted an explorative qualitative study among poultry farms across three districts of Bangladesh between July and December 2021. Data were collected from 60 poultry farmers through in-depth interviews. Interviews were audio recorded with consent, transcribed verbatim in Bangla, and analyzed using inductive thematic coding based on the grounded theory approach. Farmers commonly reported administering antimicrobials for perceived illness without prior disease diagnosis or veterinary consultation. They believe that antimicrobials have no harmful side effects and do not pose a risk of residues being transmitted to humans through poultry products. Antimicrobials were routinely used throughout the production cycle, often within 14 days before data collection. Antimicrobial use was strongly influenced by economic and relational factors, particularly farmers' reliance on poultry dealers who supplied chicks, feed, and medicines on credit. These credit-based arrangements created economic dependency, requiring farmers to sell poultry back to the same dealers and granting dealers substantial influence over decisions regarding the choice and frequency of antimicrobial use. Commercial influence from pharmaceutical representatives further shaped antimicrobial practices through product promotion and brand-driven recommendations. Additionally, veterinarians, including those affiliated with pharmaceutical companies, occasionally visited farms and prescribed multiple medicines, further influencing antimicrobial use practices. Farmers' self-belief and experiential confidence also contributed to the continued use of multiple antimicrobials, despite awareness of potential risks. This study reveals prevalent and largely unregulated antimicrobial use in commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh, driven by farmer perceptions, economic dependency on dealers, and limited veterinary oversight. Addressing AMR in poultry production will require coordinated One Health interventions, including strengthened regulation of antimicrobial distribution and access, improved veterinary services, and targeted farmer education to promote responsible antimicrobial use and protect animal and human health.

Nipah virus is a pandemic potential viral disease. On 13 January 2023, a confirmed case of Nipah Virus Disease (NiV) was reported through Nipah Enhanced Surveillance. We investigated to determine the scope and magnitude of the outbreak and the source of infection, also to explore the contributing perception, cultural patterns to control and prevent further spread. Face-to-face interviews of the contacts were performed between 14-28 January 2023. An operational case definition was prepared for identifying confirmed, probable cases and contacts. Data were collected by semi-structured questionnaire both prospectively (to identify other cases and line listing) and retrospectively (to obtain information on notified cases). Blood and throat swabs were collected from high risk and symptomatic contacts for detection of NIV infection by RT-PCR and ELISA. On 23 December 2022, eleven members of the same family drank Raw Date Palm Sap (RDPS) in Naogaon. Twelve days later, a 13-year-old boy and his 50-year-old aunt developed fever, diarrhoea, restlessness, incoherent speech and became unconscious. The boy was admitted into ICU later and survived, but the woman died before investigation. We identified total 107 contacts. And we tested 55 high-risk and symptomatic contacts and all were negative for NiV by RT-PCR. We maintained regular follow-ups according to protocol. Four bat roosts were found within a 10km radius (including the nearest roost which was within 2 km) from the source tree where the relative of the cases collected RDPS. We identified one confirmed and one probable case of NiV infection. The outbreak was contained since there were no cases among the contacts. We suspect the source of NiV was RDPS. As there is no specific vaccine and therapeutics, community awareness and enhanced surveillance can aid early detection and control of spillover events.

The biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles has gained significant attention in recent years owing to its eco-friendly nature and promising potential in a wide range of biological and environmental applications. Herein, we report a successful biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AP-AgNPs) using Adenanthera pavonina as a bio-reducer and a capping agent. Different characterizations techniques were employed to investigate the physicochemical attributes of AP-AgNPs. The XRD analysis revealed the face-centered cubic (FCC) structure of AP-AgNPs along with (111) orientation. The crystallite size of AP-AgNPs was measured to be 21.23 nm. FESEM analysis revealed spherical morphology with an average particles size of 36.77 nm. The UV–vis spectra of AP-AgNPs exhibited characteristic surface plasmon resonance peaks at 420 nm and 448 nm, while the optical band gap estimated from the Tauc plot was 2.70 eV. TG/DT analysis suggested outstanding thermal stability of AP-AgNPs, exhibiting only 12% weight loss up to 800° C. The biogenic AP-AgNPs exhibited moderate colloidal stability (-15.1 mV). AP-AgNPs demonstrated effective dose-dependent antibacterial activity, notably inhibiting Serratia marcescens with a zone of inhibition of 14.67 mm. The photocatalytic performance of AP-AgNPs was evaluated using cationic Methylene Blue and anionic Congo Red dyes, achieving degradation efficiencies of 62.88% and 29.55%, respectively, after 120 min. Therefore, the present study suggests that biogenically synthesized AgNPs from A. pavonina offer a sustainable and effective alternative for biomedical and environmental applications.

Bloodstream infections are serious, often life-threatening conditions caused by bacteria in the blood, leading to sepsis, organ failure, and high mortality worldwide, especially in children and developing countries. Their treatment is increasingly complicated by antimicrobial resistance, making blood culture essential for accurate diagnosis and effective therapy. Aim of the study was to detect antimicrobial susceptibility and multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of blood-borne pathogens from suspected patients with bacteremia in Dhaka city, Bangladesh which is a prime contributor to antibiotic resistance. A total of 498 blood samples were collected from male and female participants of different age groups who attended the hospital for treatment purposes with symptoms of BSI. The study was conducted in the laboratory of Thyroid Care and Diagnostic Centre (TCDC) in Dhaka city from December 2024 to June 2025. Only 9.8% (n=49) of positive samples were primarily detected by BacT/Alert microbial detection system; further identification was done by conventional microbiological methods. Of 49 positive samples, we identified five bacterial isolates (73.5% gram-positive and 26.5% gram-negative) and their antibiotic sensitivity testing was done by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The most causative agent for blood infections was Salmonella spp., 42.8% (n=21) and least prevalent was Streptococcus pneumonia,6.1% (n=3). Frequency of male participants were marginally more than females, (51% males vs. 49% females). Moreover, most of the positive cases (34.7%, n=17) were observed in people above 50 years and least infected (12.2%, n=6) between 31-40 years. In case of gram-negative and-positive bacteria, moderate to high (60-80%) sensitivity was observed against aminoglycoside antibiotic- amikacin (AK) along with cephalosporin antibiotics- cephradine (CE) and ceftriaxone (CRO) except for Klebsiella spp. and Staphylococcus spp. which showed low sensitivity (40%) against amikacin. On the contrary, low to moderate resistance of the isolates were revealed against most of the antibiotics tested. Low to high (0.1 to 0.5) MAR index were manifested against six classes of fourteen antibiotics. MAR indexes for five isolates revealed 4.1% (n=2) with MAR index greater than 0.2 and 85.7% (n=42) less than 0.2; the most prevalent was 0.28 in most of the isolates. This study will help the healthcare providers to select an appropriate antibiotic for typical patients with bacterial infections as treatment is often prescribed ‘empirically’ without antibiotic susceptibility testing.

Pet birds are most popular as pets in Bangladesh, with budgerigars being the most common species. However, the emergence of antimicrobial resistance poses a growing threat to both pet birds and their owners. This study aims to investigate the ecology of pet birds and the epidemiology of multidrug resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus spp. in pet birds. Data were collected from interviews with 49 pet bird farms using a pretested questionnaire, and cloacal swab samples were collected from 220 budgerigars between December 2016 and June 2017. Standard microbiological procedures were employed for bacterial isolation and identification. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested using micro-disc diffusion techniques for 9 antibiotics. Budgerigar birds were found to be 24.7 % of all pet species. The prevalences of E. coli and Staphylococcus spp. were 22.3 % and 18.2 %, respectively. All the E. coli (n = 49) isolates displayed resistance to amoxicillin, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and cefixime, with the lowest resistance observed against ciprofloxacin (6.1 %). For Staphylococcus spp., all the isolates (n = 40) were resistant against enrofloxacin and gentamycin, with the lowest resistance to ciprofloxacin and azithromycin (5 %). Significant factors associated with MDR included female budgerigars with poor body condition score (BCS), which was linked to a significantly higher prevalence of MDR E. coli. For MDR Staphylococcus spp., young age emerged as a significant factor (p < 0.005). To mitigate the risk of public health implications associated with multidrug resistant bacteria, there is a need to reduce the indiscriminate use of antibiotics in pet birds.

We report 5 patients in Bangladesh presumed to have Nipah virus infections after consuming raw date palm sap. PCR and serology for Nipah virus were negative, but high-throughput sequencing identified Pteropine orthoreovirus in archived throat swab samples and virus cultures. This batborne virus should be considered in differential diagnosis of Nipah-like illnesses.

Nipah virus (NiV) causes severe diseases in humans with a high case fatality rate. The primary risk factors for NiV infection in Bangladesh are drinking raw date palm sap (DPS) contaminated with Pteropus fruit bat secretions/excretions or close contact with or exposure to the body fluid of an individual with NiV infection. During the 2023 NiV outbreak investigation in Bangladesh, the breast milk of a NiV-infected nursing mother was tested by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of NiV-RNA. The newborn was also tested as a suspected NiV-infected subject. NiV, specifically NiV RNA, was detected in the breast milk sample. Through the investigation, it was determined that the mother consumed raw DPS 9 days before the delivery. The newborn was also confirmed as NiV positive and had exposure to maternal bodily fluid while breastfeeding, and was in prolonged maternal contact during caregiving. Although the detection of NiV RNA in breast milk does not equate to viability and transmissibility of the virus, this finding provides preliminary evidence that warrants further investigation into the potential role of breast milk in postnatal transmission of NiV. Our findings advocate incorporating breast milk testing into NiV diagnostic protocols for symptomatic mothers. This advancement will broaden our understanding of postnatal transmission of NiV and pave the way for more effective containment strategies.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), associated with irrational antimicrobial use (AMU) poses a significant health threat to both humans and animals. Thus, our research determined AMU patterns and their associated factors in Bangladeshi chicken farms. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 340 commercial chicken farms comprising broilers (109), layers (109), and Sonali (122) farms in seven districts of Bangladesh from September to October 2021. Data were collected using in-person interviews with a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Statistical analyses were performed, including descriptive statistics to understand farmer demographics and AMU practices, a Chi-square test to evaluate farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP), and logistic regression analysis to determine the factors associated with AMU. The findings indicated that 93.2% (317/340) farms administered at least one antimicrobial (AM) to chickens during the production cycle, with 67.0% of farmers used antimicrobials (AMs) in the 14 days before data collection. The usage of AMs was higher in meat-type chickens, such as broiler (78.0%) and Sonali (67.2%), in contrast to egg-type chickens, like layer (41.3%). The AMU practices were significantly associated with multiple factors, such as farming experience, poultry production type, knowledge gaps in proper AMU practices, the person managing the farm, reuse of left-over AMs, and compliance with veterinarians’ recommendations. We highlight the indiscriminate use of AMs that is occurring in poultry industry in Bangladesh, which could result in AM residues and resistance, posing detrimental consequences for public health. Farmers training on increasing their KAP regarding AMU to protect animal health, human health, and the ecosystem, is urgently needed.

Objective: Ficus benjamina, commonly known as the weeping fig, is valued for its medicinal properties and potential health benefits. Due to its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, it can treat infections, reduce inflammation, and minimize oxidative damage. This study aimed to investigate the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects, along with the acute toxicity, of ethyl acetate (EA) and n-hexane (n-H) fractions derived from ethanolic leaf extract. Methods: In vivo evaluations were conducted to assess the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and acute toxicity effects of the extracts. The acetic acid-induced writhing method was used to evaluate analgesic activity, while the formaldehyde-induced paw edema method was employed to assess anti-inflammatory effects. Antipyretic activity was determined by monitoring changes in rectal temperature in mice. Acute oral toxicity testing was performed according to OECD Guideline 423 (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) using the Fixed Dose Procedure. Results: The extract of F. benjamina exhibited significant analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activities. In analgesic tests, the ethyl acetate fraction (250 and 500 mg/kg) inhibited pain by 36.78% and 48.27%, respectively, while the n-hexane fraction showed 37.93% and 49.42% inhibition. Anti-inflammatory assays confirmed significant activity, with the ethyl acetate fraction reducing inflammation by 34.24% and 36.98%, and the n-hexane fraction by 27.84% and 29.17% at the same respective doses. Both fractions demonstrated antipyretic effects, with the ethyl acetate fraction (500 mg/kg) showing the highest efficacy. Acute toxicity tests indicated no toxic effects at doses up to 5000 mg/kg. Conclusion: F. benjamina leaf extract demonstrated notable analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties.

Biologists are increasingly interested in the ecological and evolutionary factors that influence microbial communities. Yet compared to bacterial communities, our understanding of viral community ecology remains limited. Here, we investigated the factors influencing viral community composition and structure among wild rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in human-modified environments in Bangladesh, focusing on assemblages of picobirnaviruses (PbVs) as a model system. We found that anthropogenic factors-particularly human and livestock densities-were the strongest predictors of viral community composition. Host social organisation played a secondary role, shaping viral communities at the group and site levels. Virus-virus associations influenced co-occurrence patterns primarily within individual hosts, but their effect became less evident at broader scales. In contrast, individual host traits (age, sex and physiological stress) and viral phylogenetic relationships had minimal effects on viral co-occurrence. Notably, anthropogenic factors had opposing effects on different PbV taxa: While some viruses were more prevalent in areas with higher human and livestock densities, others were less common, possibly due to their association with wildlife or natural environments. This suggests that macaques may acquire certain PbVs from anthropogenic sources while experiencing reduced exposure to others in human-modified landscapes. Together, these findings reveal the dominant role of environmental and social factors in shaping viral communities and highlight the hierarchical nature of virus community assembly-with different ecological processes operating at individual, group and site scales.