High-mountain areas are particularly fragile and vulnerable to rapid transformations resulting from high-relief energy and the significant dynamics of natural processes. Human activity in the mountains may contribute to the development of diverse morphodynamic zones. The main aim of the study was to identify the long-term results of human impact on ski slopes in the Rhaetian Alps (Italy). The identification of changes on the Carosello3000 and Mottolino ski slopes was carried out on the basis of the historical aerial photos from 1947 and orthophotos from 2003, 2007, 2012, 2019, and 2021 as well as fieldwork done in 2024. Over the whole study period of 18 years, 19.1

Glacier retreat is transforming high-mountain and polar landscapes, replacing ice with vast, newly exposed terrains where soil development and ecological succession start. Although ecosystems developing in deglaciated terrains are often viewed as starting from scratch, glaciers host diverse communities whose links with emerging soils remain unquantified. Using environmental DNA metabarcoding, we provide the first multi-taxa assessment of biodiversity transitions across the supraglacial-proglacial interface across five glacier systems in Svalbard, the Alps and Patagonia. We analysed 212 samples from the surfaces of retreating glaciers and their forelands, spanning a chronosequence from 1 to 483 years since deglaciation. Recently deglaciated soils (≤ 10 years since glacier retreat) showed taxonomic and functional similarity to supraglacial communities. This ecological continuity was highly taxon-specific, being pronounced for communities of microorganisms (Bacteria, Fungi, Protista) but weak for animals (e.g., Collembola, Insecta). For microbes, similarity diminished rapidly over succession as community turnover increased, and functional composition shifted from phototrophic and saprotrophic dominance toward heterotrophic and symbiotic assemblages. Shared microbial taxa and functions indicate a transient glacial influence during early soil succession. Our results suggest that early soil communities are not assembled independently of glacier ecosystems, but are initially linked to them through diverse ecological pathways that diminish over time. The observed glacier-proglacial connectivity challenges the view of succession on deglaciated terrains as beginning on lifeless substrates and instead points to a glacial legacy in emerging soils. As glaciers rapidly disappear under climate change, the unique biodiversity they host is also being lost, underscoring the urgent need to study supraglacial and proglacial systems together. Such integration is essential to understand ecological succession in proglacial ecosystems, which are expected to play an increasingly important role in this century.

We present the geomorphological mapping of the Visogno and Spluga valleys in the Central Italian Alps, including the morphometric and activity analysis of local rock glaciers, aimed at understanding the response to ongoing climate change. The onset of geomorphic processes controlling the evolution of local landscape dates to the Last Glacial Maximum, under glacial conditions, and continued under warmer conditions in the Holocene. The latter phase promoted glacial retreat and favoured the onset of periglacial and paraglacial processes. Our survey identifies 19 rock glaciers, predominantly SE-facing aspects, 11 relict and 8 transitional occurring above the 2200 m threshold suggested in regional inventories as the altitude limit for permafrost. These results highlight the importance of transitional rock glaciers as potential freshwater reservoirs under ongoing climate warming, emphasising the need for their monitoring as these features are out of equilibrium in the extant climate and likely to undergo rapid changes soon.

This paper investigates human-induced geomorphological transformation along the Fraele Valley (Central Alps, Northern Italy) following the construction and operation of the Cancano I, San Giacomo di Fraele and Cancano II hydroelectric dams. By integrating historical maps (1866-1931), aerial imagery (1945-1954), declassified satellite data, recent remote sensing products and field geomorphological mapping, we reconstruct the evolution of the Adda River corridor from a natural braided river system to a regulated and largely submerged hydrographic network. The results show that the original fluvial landforms, characterized by debris-flow fans, gravel bars and dynamic channels, were progressively submerged and reworked by reservoir development and seasonal water-level fluctuations, promoting the formation of fan deltas, shoreline gullies and subaqueous landforms and redirecting sediment fluxes into the artificial basins. Field surveys during an exceptional low-lake level in 2023 improved remote-sensing interpretations, revealing submerged landforms, reactivated drainage pathways and localized shoreline erosion. These multiscale observations highlight how repeated water-level oscillations act as a key morphodynamic driver, enhancing sediment reworking and slope-reservoir nexus. This work contributes to the understanding of anthropogenic geomorphology in high-mountain regions, underscoring the value of combining remote sensing data, historical cartography and field evidence to assess large-scale and subtle diachronic transformations of the Alpine catchment. The study highlights the need for integrated approaches to evaluate long-term landscape change and geomorphic feedbacks in regulated mountain catchments.

Smiraglia C., Senese A., Di Biase M., Ambrosini R., Azzoni R.S., Bocchiola D., Cola G., Favaron M., Fugazza D., Marzano D., Morosini S., Pedrotti L., Prandi G., Scotti R., Toffaletti A., Zucali M., Pelfini M., Diolaiuti G.A., The challenges of the "ephemeral path". Problems and issues of explaining climate change and its environmental impact through the development of glaciological trails. (IT ISSN 0391-9838, 2026). Global warming is profoundly transforming glacierized mountain landscapes, with significant consequences for the environment, safety, and tourism. In this context, scientific outreach and conscious engagement with the territory are essential to raise public awareness and promote sustainable behaviour. This paper presents the design and implementation of the Stoppani-Desio Glaciological Trail, an educational route developed to guide visitors through the ongoing transformations of the Forni Glacier, located within Stelvio National Park (Italy). The trail features thirteen observation points, each corresponding to a historical position of the glacier front over the past 3000 years. At each stop, a metal plaque equipped with a QR code provides access to multilingual digital content (texts, images, and videos) highlighting glaciological, ecological, and cultural aspects of the site. The signage is designed to be durable, inclusive, and low-impact, while the trail ensures safety and accessibility for users with varying physical and technical abilities. The project integrates scientific research, landscape interpretation, and digital tools (e.g., 360 degrees video and generative AI content), positioning the trail as a dynamic open-air laboratory. The initiative is supported by a collaborative governance model involving academic institutions, local authorities, Alpine guides, and volunteers, enabling regular updates and long-term maintenance. The Stoppani-Desio Trail offers a replicable model for glaciological trails in other mountain regions affected by glacier retreat. Its flexible infrastructure, multilingual outreach, and integration of real-time scientific data make it a promising strategy for combining sustainable tourism, environmental education, and the promotion of glacier heritage in a changing climate.

Microplastics (MPs) have been detected in a wide array of remote terrestrial areas. Analysing the occurrence of MPs in remote areas is paramount to understand their transport and deposition patterns. Despite the growing body of publications on this topic, studies are often spatially restricted. This limits assessments of global patterns in MPs distribution. Glaciers are landscape features without substantial MPs local inputs, which allows the evaluation of transport and deposition mechanisms. To fill this gap, we gathered 57 samples of supraglacial debris from 9 glaciers, ranging in latitude from 46°S to 78°N. MPs contamination was studied in terms of concentration, shape, size, and polymeric composition, observing significant variations with latitude for all considered parameters. The same held true when considering all anthropogenic particles (APs), including natural polymers. No single polymer was so common to be detected on all glaciers, suggesting atmospheric transport as the main driver of MPs contamination, possibly showing consistent global patterns. Presence of human modified environments in the areas surrounding the glaciers affected MPs size and composition. Detecting latitudinal trends is fundamental for constraining the atmospheric limb of the global plastic cycle and modelling MPs deposition. Since MPs can release toxic additives and pigments into the environment, studies on their distribution can help assess contamination loads and hazards at a global scale.

We present the main outcomes of the IdroStelvio project, continuous (2010-present) monitoring initiative developed through cooperation between the Stelvio National Park Authority, the University of Milano, and Politecnico di Milano. The project established and maintained a hydrometric network monitoring 11 high-altitude streams predominantly fed by snow and ice meltwater. The monitoring system, covering approximately 32% of the park's area, and more than 90% of glacierized catchments therein, provides a comprehensive view of the hydrological dynamics of this sensitive Alpine region. IdroStelvio represents one of the most extensive and long-standing case studies of hydrological monitoring in glacierized environments, both in Italy and internationally. Beyond reporting the structure, evolution, and scientific outputs of the network, this paper distills the operational experience gained into a set of practical guidelines for the monitoring of snow-ice fed mountain streams. These guidelines address site selection, sensor configuration, maintenance protocols, and data validation strategies, aiming to support the replicability of similar systems in other high-altitude regions. The collected data are valuable for glacio-hydrological modeling, scenario analysis, and water resource planning under climate change. The IdroStelvio experience may serve as a reference framework for future monitoring initiatives in sensitive alpine environments.

This study describes and analyses elevation changes in the debris-covered tongue of the surge-type Belvedere Glacier (Western Italian Alps) between 1951 and 2023 using remote sensing data, including historical aerial photographs, Lidar and drone acquisitions. High-resolution digital surface models from 1951, 2009 and 2023 enabled detailed observation of the spatially heterogeneous patterns of change caused by debris cover, avalanches, a surge-type event, supraglacial meltwater, and glacial lake outburst floods in the context of global warming. In the period of 1951–2009, the mean rate of downwasting was quantified as 0.24 metres per year (14 metres in total), ranging from −83.5 to 32.2 metres. During the second observation period from 2009 to 2023, the mean downwasting rate was estimated to be 1.8 metres per year (25 metres in total), varying from −73.9 to 26.9 metres. The 2001–2002 surge-type event, meltwater streams and supraglacial lakes are considered to be the main drivers forcing elevation changes and shaping its spatial variation and surface structures. In general, the changes in the glacier have accelerated between 2009 and 2023. This paper demonstrates the high potential of differenced digital surface models with high spatial resolution to detect the processes of glacier dynamics in high detail.

The Schmidt hammer is a cost-effective tool for both relative- and absolute-age dating of rocks (the latter in connection with previously absolutely dated surfaces). Its application in high-mountain environments is particularly favoured due to the abundance of dating material and the small size of the dating tool compared to other options. The use of the Schmidt hammer on rock types with macroscopic crystals is not recommended due to the varying weathering rates of different minerals. However, in harsh alpine conditions, there is often no other choice. We applied the Schmidt hammer in the relative dating of boulders in the Belvedere Glacier valley (Italian Alps) with orthogneiss and paragneiss being the dominant rock types (both consisting of macroscopic minerals). For the first time in the Schmidt hammer-related studies, we prepared a chart for the objective inclination correction of the data. The correction for aspect was also performed. The results suggest the successful applicability of the Schmidt hammer even under the unfavourable circumstances.

The geological and geomorphological record of the Last Glaciation in the Apennines is extensively documented, except for the Monti della Laga sector, where limited indicators of glacier extension have been reported. This study presents field evidence of glacial deposits and landforms from two specific sites within the Monti della Laga Range: Monte Pelone and Tordino Valley head. Although limited, this evidence suggests glaciation within a structural and lithological setting that facilitated rapid slope evolution. The post-glaciation paraglacial processes in the area erased most glacial traces, but our geomorphological and stratigraphical investigations identified specific landforms of glacial origin. Notably, at Monte Pelone, a semi-circular depositional landform exhibiting a significant presence of coarse clasts and distinctive rotational features has been identified as a moraine. Additionally, a smaller moraine ridge with evidence of diamicton deposition was observed in the Tordino Valley head. These observations align with an Equilibrium Line Altitude estimated at 1750 m a.s.l. in the central Apennines in the Last Glacial Maximum and, considering the favourable topographic conditions of the area, significantly contribute to the understanding of glaciations within the central Apennines.

Understanding of the formation and evolution of supraglacial lakes in high mountain regions is crucial for accurately assessing their impact on glacier behaviour, hydrology, and potential hazards such as outburst floods. This article examines the annual spatio-temporal evolution of supraglacial lakes on the Belvedere Glacier between 2000 and 2023. Very high-resolution aerial photography and high-resolution satellite imagery were used to identify supraglacial lakes as small as 37 m2 and narrow bands of ice-marginal lakes. The mapping revealed that the well-known Lake Effimero is stable in its position but unstable in size, with variations from 428 m2 to 99.7 × 103 m2. These changes are potentially due to snowmelt or glacier dynamics. In 2002, the area of Effimero was at its largest extent observed during the study period. The first appearance of the Lake Effimero was revelated by the Landsat imagery on 27 May 2001, which differed from the findings of other studies. New lakes were observed to form in a manner independent of Effimero formation, exhibiting a consistent annual occurrence with nearly linear area growth up to 9.7 × 103 m2 in 2023. The formation of the lakes is shown to be influenced by their morphological characteristics.

The worldwide retreat of glaciers is causing a faster than ever increase in ice-free areas that are leading to the emergence of new ecosystems. Understanding the dynamics of these environments is critical to predicting the consequences of climate change on mountains and at high latitudes. Climatic differences between regions of the world could modulate the emergence of biodiversity and functionality after glacier retreat, yet global tests of this hypothesis are lacking. Nematodes are the most abundant soil animals, with keystone roles in ecosystem functioning, but the lack of global-scale studies limits our understanding of how the taxonomic and functional diversity of nematodes changes during the colonization of proglacial landscapes. We used environmental DNA metabarcoding to characterize nematode communities of 48 glacier forelands from five continents. We assessed how different facets of biodiversity change with the age of deglaciated terrains and tested the hypothesis that colonization patterns are different across forelands with different climatic conditions. Nematodes colonized ice-free areas almost immediately. Both taxonomic and functional richness quickly increased over time, but the increase in nematode diversity was modulated by climate, so that colonization started earlier in forelands with mild summer temperatures. Colder forelands initially hosted poor communities, but the colonization rate then accelerated, eventually leveling biodiversity differences between climatic regimes in the long term. Immediately after glacier retreat, communities were dominated by colonizer taxa with short generation time and r-ecological strategy but community composition shifted through time, with increased frequency of more persister taxa with K-ecological strategy. These changes mostly occurred through the addition of new traits instead of their replacement during succession. The effects of local climate on nematode colonization led to heterogeneous but predictable patterns around the world that likely affect soil communities and overall ecosystem development.

The global retreat of glaciers is dramatically altering mountain and high-latitude landscapes, with new ecosystems developing from apparently barren substrates1-4. The study of these emerging ecosystems is critical to understanding how climate change interacts with microhabitat and biotic communities and determines the future of ice-free terrains1,5. Here, using a comprehensive characterization of ecosystems (soil properties, microclimate, productivity and biodiversity by environmental DNA metabarcoding6) across 46 proglacial landscapes worldwide, we found that all the environmental properties change with time since glaciers retreated, and that temperature modulates the accumulation of soil nutrients. The richness of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals increases with time since deglaciation, but their temporal patterns differ. Microorganisms colonized most rapidly in the first decades after glacier retreat, whereas most macroorganisms took longer. Increased habitat suitability, growing complexity of biotic interactions and temporal colonization all contribute to the increase in biodiversity over time. These processes also modify community composition for all the groups of organisms. Plant communities show positive links with all other biodiversity components and have a key role in ecosystem development. These unifying patterns provide new insights into the early dynamics of deglaciated terrains and highlight the need for integrated surveillance of their multiple environmental properties5.

The debris-covered Belvedere Glacier is an iconic place for investigating glacier dynamics and geomorphological processes typical of high mountain environments. Moreover, being located in an area highly suited to tourism, glacial and geomorphological hazards can evolve into risk scenarios. Particular attention has been paid during this research to the surge-type event that occurred at the beginning of the 21st century, and to the recent sliding of a lateral moraine nearby the chairlift station. Tree sampling was performed (19 trees on the lateral moraine; 10 undisturbed trees), and the results were compared with morphometric measurements on orthophotos of different years. Besides sampling trunks, the six available exposed roots (13 samples) from a tree located along the sliding niche were sampled to identify the exposure time. Morphometric measurements of the touristic trail dislocation indicate a sliding rate of 1.87 m/y – 1.98 m/y (2018–2023), while the regression rate of the sliding niche is 1.70 m/y (2021–2023). The age of trees along the trench is variable (14–49 years), as is the signal of compression wood, enhancing differentially the passage of the surge wave and the subsequent glacier downwasting. The beginning of root exposure occurred between 2017 and 2019, before the effective evidence of large fractures in the ground. Moreover, the roots show traumatic resin ducts in the period between 2020 and 2022, confirming the tree disturbance. In conclusion, the investigated events are recorded differentially in the sampled trees, especially in roots, anticipating the actual commencement of ground failure. A multidisciplinary approach, including remote sensing, field survey, and dendrogeomorphological analysis is essential to define the dynamics of complex systems.

Coastal lagoon systems are highly sensitive environments currently experiencing the impact of climate change and human pressure, which are triggering alteration of pristine biodiversity and geomorphic dynamics. Climateand/or tectonic-induced changes in sea-level and shifts in the base level and/or flow rate of rivers connected to inlets heavily affect the balance of lagoon ecosystems, triggering ecological changes and/or alterations in landforms. For instance, the shorelines of the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from the Red Sea to the Persian/ Arabian Gulf, are dotted by coastal lagoons that are undergoing deep transformations. Across the Holocene, Arabian lagoons underwent subsequent phases of modification triggered by sea-level changes, modifications of ocean circulation, and post-Last Glacial Maximum shifts in the discharge of main rivers (e.g., Tigris and Euphrates rivers). These factors reshaped the geomorphology of such contexts, promoting the evolution of freshwater ecosystems along the shorelines of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and influencing the growth of extensive mangrove forests. In recent years, human agency has disrupted the pristine dynamics and ecosystems of coastal-lagoon systems between Abu Dhabi and Ras al-Khaimah. Local lagoons have undergone significant changes due to urban expansion involving land reclamation initiatives along the coast to expand coastal areas, including the construction of artificial islands and the consequent changes in circulation and reduction of mangrove forests. The lagoon of the Emirate of Umm al-Quwain (UAQ), thanks to the slower rate of urban sprawl and limited land reclamation operations, still preserves an extensive mangrove ecosystem, pristine landforms, and almost unspoilt tidal dynamics. For that reason, it constitutes the ideal context for a geomorphological assessment based on a combined multi-temporal remote sensing (from 1968 to 2022) and field validation approach, aimed at achieving a deep understanding of the formation and dynamics of tidal-lagoon and coastal systems and landforms. Furthermore, a detailed geomorphological reconstruction of specific sectors of the UAQ lagoon traced its evolutionary history, informing interpretations of past human communities' adaptation strategies and resource exploitation patterns.

The Belvedere glacier is an intensively studied glacier in the Italian Alps on the east face of the Monte Rosa, which is currently undergoing a fast deglaciation connected to various slope failures and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods. Measurements of the terminus position have been carried out since the 1920s. Since 2000, more attention has been paid to this area due to the occurrence of large mass movements and a surge-type event. In this review, research articles and various reports dealing mainly with glacier dynamics, rock and ice avalanches, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods, and other hazardous processes were considered. Aerial photogrammetry, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, satellite stereo-processing and several terrestrial approaches (laser scanning, geophysics, measurements of near-surface heat flow, ablation stakes and camera-lapse) provided a base for quantifying the ongoing processes. Despite efforts based on the comparison of Digital Elevation Models, this review shows that the evolution of the Belvedere glacier in terms of ice volume is still partially unknown due to the low temporal frequency of aerial surveys, technical limitations of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles used, and the fact that most studies focus only on the lower part of the glacier. The hazardous supraglacial Effimero lake that appeared during the surge-type event has been well documented, and interventions to mitigate potential risks were put in place, but the trigger of the event and the evolution of the lake basin have not yet been clarified. Mass wasting and outburst floods are mainly documented in the grey literature. The degradation of permafrost was suggested to be the driver of rock and ice avalanches, including one of the largest ice avalanches in the Alps, which occurred in 2005. In summary, the Belvedere Glacier and the surrounding rock walls have experienced repeated slope failures, an incident of surge and several outburst floods. Despite regular monitoring, a clear picture of its behavior due to the changing climate is still unknown. This review is intended to pave the way for further integrative studies.

The mechanisms underlying plant succession remain highly debated. Due to the local scope of most studies, we lack a global quantification of the relative importance of species addition ‘versus’ replacement. We assessed the role of these processes in the variation (β-diversity) of plant communities colonizing the forelands of 46 retreating glaciers worldwide, using both environmental DNA and traditional surveys. Our findings indicate that addition and replacement concur in determining community changes in deglaciated sites, but their relative importance varied over time. Taxa addition dominated immediately after glacier retreat, as expected in harsh environments, while replacement became more important for late-successional communities. These changes were aligned with total β-diversity changes, which were more pronounced between early-successional communities than between late-successional communities (>50 yr since glacier retreat). Despite the complexity of community assembly during plant succession, the observed global pattern suggests a generalized shift from the dominance of facilitation and/or stochastic processes in early-successional communities to a predominance of competition later on.