Abstract Background Entomological data for onchocerciasis surveillance relies on sampling black flies through human landing collectors in the field and laboratory testing of the flies for infection using pooled screening O-150 PCR-ELISA assay. Both techniques require improvements. This study aimed to optimize the Esperanza Window Trap (EWT) for black fly collection. We tested alternative carbon dioxide (CO2) mimics to attract black flies to the traps. Additionally, we evaluated new quantitative PCR (qPCR) methods that target mitochondrial DNA markers and have been proposed to enhance the sensitivity and specificity for detecting Onchocerca volvulus infections in blackflies. Methods Traps baited with low, medium and high release rates of either 2-butanone or cyclopentanone as CO2 mimics were field tested against traps baited with organically generated CO2 in four ecological zones in Nigeria: Guinea savannah, derived savannah, rainforest and montane forest. The performance of EWTs baited with CO2 or in combination with 2-butanone (low release) were subsequently evaluated against the human landing collection (HLC). Trap scaling was also pilot tested by comparing two EWTs to a single HLC team. Collected black flies were used to test detection of O. volvulus in black flies using Ov ND5 real-time PCR (qPCR) compared to the conventional pool screening O-150 PCR. Results EWTs baited with 2-butanone caught similar numbers of black flies (Simulium damnosum s.l.) to those baited with CO2, while cyclopentanone collected significantly fewer flies in all locations. The low release of 2-butanone was the most effective overall, although HLCs collected higher numbers of black flies than EWT baited with CO2 either singly or in combination with low-release 2-butanone. The combination of two EWTs baited with CO2 and deployed 100 m apart from each other collected similar numbers of flies as one HLC. More black fly pools were positive for O. volvulus by Ov ND5 qPCR compared with O-150 PCR in derived savannah (31.15 vs. 15.57%), montane forest (11.54 vs. 0%) and rainforest (23.08 vs. 2.56%), with only one positive pool in Guinea savannah detected by both methods. Conclusions The 2-butanone has potential to be used in xenomonitoring as a standardized replacement for organically generated CO2. Ov ND5 qPCR detected more positive pools than O-150 PCR. The positive pools found in foci hitherto considered to have interrupted/eliminated onchocerciasis highlight the need for more sensitive and specific methods that support programmatic assessments to identify and combat recrudescence. Graphical Abstract

Assessment of the prevalence of malaria in pregnant women and its intervention measures was investigated between March and August, 2022. A total of 428 pregnant women not less than 15 years were randomly recruited from five (5) hospitals in Orlu. Result revealed that age group 31-40years, participants with tertiary education, traders/farmers recorded highest participation. Multigravid (50.5%) participated more in the study, followed by secundigravid (33.9%) and primigravid (15.7%) as the least participants; while 55.4% of the participants were in their 3rd trimester. Overall prevalence (42.9%) of malaria was reported among pregnant women under study. Socio-demographic prevalence of the pregnant women shows that age group 21-30 years (55.2%), participants with tertiary education (56.7%), and civil servants (50.0%) recorded highest prevalence. Also, it was observed that multigravid (51.4%) had highest prevalence. Result observed no difference in the prevalence significant between primigravid and secundigravid likewise in their trimesters. Participants with ITNs and IPTp usage recorded (47.8% versus 40.1%) prevalence. From the assessment, it was observed that 155(36.2%) pregnant women use IPTp only, 59(13.8%) use ITNs only while 214(50.0%) combine both IPTp + ITNs. The participants 239(55.8%) reported fansidar (Sulfadoxine - Pyrimethamine) as the most preferred drug for malaria treatment during pregnancy. Malaria drug with 3 tablets 357(83.4%) was most preferred; most pregnant women 218(50.9%) reported taking the drug once in 2-3months; while the major source of drug procurement reported healthcare facility 281(65.7%). The use of ITNs should be encouraged during pregnancy as well as the use of intermittent preventive therapy in pregnancy (IPTp) to ensure reduction in the incidence of malaria disease.

Transmission of Onchocerca volvulus (causing "river blindness") was interrupted in two states of Nigeria (Plateau and Nasarawa) in 2017 in accordance with 2016 WHO guidelines. Ivermectin mass drug administration was halted in January 2018, and posttreatment surveillance activities were conducted over a 3-year period. Vector Simulium damnosum s.l. flies were collected during the 2019 (39 sites) and 2020 (42 sites) transmission seasons. Head pools were tested by polymerase chain reaction for the presence of third-stage O. volvulus larvae; 15,585 flies were all negative, demonstrating an infective rate of , 1/2,000 with 95% confidence. In 2021, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Health declared the two-state area as having eliminated transmission. Plateau and Nasarawa states are the first of 30 endemic states in Nigeria to have met the WHO criteria for onchocerciasis elimination. Post-elimination surveillance will need to continue given the risk of reintroduction of transmission from neighboring states.

Length-weight relationship and condition factor are important in fishery assessment studies since it provide information about the growth of the fish, its general wellbeing and fitness in aquatic habitat. LWRs for 2 fish species –Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) and Oreochromis nilotica (Linnaeus 1758) collected from Orashi River were established and their growth condition was evaluated. The study was carried out from September 2019 to August 2020. The biometric measurement (length/weight) shows that the weight of the fish increased in proportion to its length as indicated by the slope (b) of the relationship. The mean value shows strong relationship because coefficient of determination (R2) is >0.5 and range from 0.795-0.985. Higher values of both length and weight were recorded for Catfish over Tilapia. The results indicated that almost all the fish sampled exhibited a positive allometric growth and trended to grow bigger. All relationship were statistically significant (p=0.05). The mean Fulton’s condition factor (K) of the fish range from Catfish (1.24-1.80) and Tilapia (1.5-3.7) in the 5 stations sampled. The result showed that Tilapia had a high mean range and therefore was in better conditions than the Catfish. This gives information on the food supply, timing and duration of breeding cycle. The indices may also be used in the general assessment of the “well being” of a fish [1]. Multiple comparison tests using Turkey Kramer showed that the condition factor of Catfish from Okwuzi (station 1) was significantly different from that of Ndoni and Omoku but Ebocha and Obrikom was not significantly different from each other. With regards to seasonal variation, dry season recorded higher values than rainy season.

Entomological, quantitative and qualitative data collection on willingness to comply with ivermectin treatment was conducted between May 2019 and March 2020 in Imo River Basin Nigeria. Simulium damnosum collected at Rivers Lolo and Ibii breeding sites by human-bait technique was assessed for transmission indices by standard methods. Structured questionnaires were used to ascertain compliance levels by communities (Umulolo and Amuro) and willingness to sustain the long-term ivermectin treatment. Entomologic indices (overall and specific for both sites) showed that infection, infective and parous rates were 0.7% (0.6% versus 0.7%), 0.0% (0.0% versus 0.0%), and 21.0% (22.3% versus 19.9%) respectively. Monthly biting rate (MBR) and monthly parous biting rate (MPBR) were 6,779.25 (3,291.75 versus 3,507.75) and 1,427.25 (770.0 versus 657.25) bites/person/month. Monthly transmission potentials (MTP) were zero indicative of no transmission. Of the 458 interviewed, 31.6% and 68.3% were males and females respectively. Among them, 66.8% were males and 67.4% were females treated before and 21 (14.5%) and 38 (121.1%) were high compliers. Sex did not affect the rate of compliance (p>0.05). Age group 25 years and above (74.3%) had been treated before with 21.3% high compliers among age groups. Analysis of data revealed that age significantly affected the intake of drug (p0.05). Suggested ways to improve compliance were documented and findings discussed in the context of possible onchocerciasis elimination.

Background More than 40 million people live in onchocerciasis-endemic areas in Nigeria. For at least 19 y, mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin was implemented with at least 65% total population coverage in Kaduna, Kebbi and Zamfara states. Impact surveys done using skin biopsies yielded no infections. Serological and entomological assessments were undertaken to determine if onchocerciasis transmission had been interrupted and MDA could be stopped. Methods The presence of onchocerciasis-specific immunoglobulin G4 antibody was measured by enzyme=linked immunosorbent assay conducted on dried blood spots collected from 5- to 9-year-old children resident in each state. O-150 polymerase chain reaction testing of Simulium damnosum s.l. heads for Onchocerca volvulus DNA was done on black flies collected by human landing capture and Esperanza window traps. Results A total of 9078 children were surveyed across the three states. A total of 6139 vectors were collected from Kaduna state, 129 from Kebbi state and 2 from Zamfara state; all were negative. Kebbi and Zamfara states did thousands of hours of black fly catching and intensive river prospecting. The resulting low fly catch was due to a low fly population incapable of sustaining transmission. Conclusion Onchocerciasis transmission has been interrupted and the three states meet World Health Organization thresholds: seropositivity in children < 0.1% and < 1/2000 infective black flies with 95% confidence. The 2.2 million people in Kaduna state and 4 million in Kebbi and Zamfara states no longer need ivermectin for onchocerciasis.

The study investigated prevalence, clinical manifestations and co-infections of buruli ulcer in parts of Imo State, Nigeria. The sampled human population was physically examined for buruli ulcer infection, in ulcerative stages wound swab samples were collected using sterile swab sticks and taken to the laboratory for microbial analysis. Microbial analysis of samples, gram staining, and identification of bacterial isolates, biochemical tests and determination of co-infections were achieved using standard methods. The analysis of results revealed moderately high prevalence rate of buruli ulcer disease in the area. The results further showed that in Oguta 58.54% of sampled individuals had clinical manifestations of the infection. Ohaji/Egbema recorded 51.46 %, Oru East had 57.50% of victims with clinical manifestations, Onuimo had 61.29%, Isiala Mbano recorded 60.00 %, Ikeduru 54.14% and Oru-West had 53.42% of individuals with clinical manifestations of buruli ulcer. Prevalence of the buruli ulcer differed among the Local Government Areas studied. Study revealed variations in prevalence and clinical manifestations between males and females in the communities surveyed, with more females having ulcerative cases, too. Bacterial isolates confirmed from buruli ulcer disease were Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp., Proteus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus spp. Candida albicans, a fungal species was also isolated. Different microbial species responsible for pus formation in buruli ulcer wounds were highlighted. The results revealed that the toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus caused dermatitis and toxic shock syndrome to the victims.

Investigations on knowledge, attitude and practices of the human activities related to the breeding of mosquito vectors in Ikeduru L.G.A, Imo State, Nigeria were carried out. Descriptive survey method was used for the study. The towns were sampled using simple random sampling technique. Questionnaire and interviews were used to generate data. The binomial logistic regression method was applied in testing relationships between parameters. The findings revealed that increasing age was associated with an increased likelihood of having both knowledge and positive attitude associated with human activities on mosquito species. Results further indicated that increase in age was associated with decreased likelihood of participants practicing human activities that contribute to breeding of mosquito species. Findings also revealed that males were 7.026 times more likely to have knowledge associated with human activities on mosquito breeding than their female counterparts. Females were more likely to exhibit positive attitude associated with human activities on mosquito species than male counterpart. Males were more likely to practice the human activities that contribute to breeding of mosquito than females. It was recommended that indiscriminate dumping of refuse should be discouraged. Educating the masses on the activities that favor rapid breeding of mosquitoes in the area should be encouraged. Planting of mosquito repellant herbs near human habitation should be encouraged. Vulcanizers should be enlightened on the dangers of storing water in unused tires. Cassava and Maize Processors should disinfect their environment at least once in two weeks.

The research was intended to study the influence of human and industrial activities on the Orashi River and two bony fish (Clarias gariepinus and Tilapia nilotica). Three groups are observed to have impacted the environment – Oil/gas industries, tyre burning from abattoir, untreated human and animal waste from settlers and the abattoir. The study was carried out from September 2019 to August 2020. The mean concentrations of the parameters studied in some samples were close to or exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) and Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv) recommended limits for drinking water and seafood. The results from this study have provided information on the heavy metals profile on the fish of the river. The level of heavy metals in the muscle of Catfish and Tilapia showed a range of Cadmium in Catfish (1-3.9mg/kg and Tilapia (0.1-4.2mg/kg) with the highest level occurring in station 2 (3.47mg/kg for Catfish and 3.39mg/kg for Tilapia) which is high with regard to FAO 19835, FAO/WHO 10896, EEC 20054 permissible limit of 0.01mg/l and USEPA SQG (1mg/kg) level in seafood. The levels of essential heavy metals in fish muscle were Copper (Catfish-10.9-33mg/kg, Tilapia -17.3-40.6mg/kg), Iron (Catfish-1.0-2.5mg/kg, Tilapia -0.1-5.6mg/kg) were within the FAO 1983 permissible limit while Zinc (Catfish-22-213.2mg/kg) and Tilapia (30.1-196mg/kg) exceeds the limit in some stations. Catfish muscles recorded higher mean value (127.12mg/kg) for all heavy metals than tilapia (44.03mg/kg) and the sequence is Copper > Zinc > Iron > Cadmium. The concentration of heavy metals in Orashi River is in the sequence: Sediment > Catfish > Tilapia >Water. The Total Heavy metal concentration in muscle of Catfish (0.5-1.8mg/kg) and Tilapia (0.1-3.8mg/kg) were within permissible limit.

Mosquitoes are obnoxious and notorious blood-sucking insects that devastate human population through malaria attack. This study was carried out in Ikeduru Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria in year 2020 with the aim of identifying the most effective method of mosquito sampling. Collection sites were randomly selected based on areas where human activities that aid the breeding of mosquitoes were observed. Mosquitoes were collected using four methods for the adult stage and one method for the larval stage. The methods applied and compared were the pyrethrum knock down/ spray sheet mosquito sampling method, the human bait/ human landing catch technique, the sweep net collection method, the mosquito net-light trap technique and the dipper technique. Sampled mosquitoes were identified using standard methods. The results of the comparative performance evaluations of the different mosquito sampling methods revealed that sweep net and pyrethrum knock down/ spray sheets had the highest occurrence of mosquito species while the dipper mosquito sampling method showed the least performance. This implies that the most effective way for mosquito vector catch from their breeding sites is through the use of sweep net and pyrethrum knock down/ spray sheets. The two effective sampling techniques permit mosquitoes to be picked intact without dismembering them for easy identification.

Onchocerciasis, caused by Onchocerca volvulus is transmitted in Nigeria by female blackflies of the Simulium damnosum group. To monitor interruption of transmission and or elimination of onchocerciasis, traps are normally set and or human landing collection of female flies carried out at high risk areas along these river banks (the breeding sites). Currently, the protocol demands that at least 6000 female flies be collected from each transmission zone for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis in order to determine the infectivity rate of the female blackflies. During the May 2021 Nigerian Onchocerciasis Elimination Committee (NOEC) Meeting, it was observed that very low or no female S. damnosum flies were trapped and or caught in 18 months of field exercise from the river systems in Kebbi and Zamfara States as well as Abuja the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). These river systems hitherto were productive breeding sites of blackfly vector hence transmission of onchocerciasis was active and the areas were endemic for onchocerciasis. Again, these rivers are known to traverse the semi-urban and urban centres in these areas. It was suggested that among other factors, that rapid urbanization in these areas may be a major contributory factor that has affected the ecology of the breeding sites and has made the rivers currently considered non-suitable breeding waters for the blackfly vectors. This study was a literature search undertaken to bring to focus the possibility that urbanization may have negatively impacted on the breeding of Simulium vectors and transmission of onchocerciasis in Kebbi and Zamfara States as well as Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory, and helped the elimination of the disease. Some research questions are also thrown up to guide empirical and operational studies.

The research was intended to study the influence of human and industrial activities on the Orashi River. Three groups are observed to have impacted the environment – Oil/gas industries, tyre burning (smokes and ashes) released during roasting of slaughtered animals in abattoir, untreated human and animal waste from settlers and the abattoir. The study was carried out from September 2019 to August 2020. The mean concentrations of the parameters studied in some samples were close to or exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv) recommended limits for drinking water and seafood. The results from this study have provided information on the heavy metals profile on the surface water and sediment of the river. Essential heavy metals detected in water were in the range of Cu (1-5.4mg/l), Zn (1-4.4mg/l) and Fe (0.1 – 1.8 mg/l) which were within the WHO (1989), USEPA (1986), FEPA (1999) permissible limit of 3mg/l. The non-essential metals investigated were Cd, Cr and Pb but only Cd was detected. Cd levels (0.1-0.8mg/l) were slightly high, above the permissible limit of 0.01mg/l. Heavy metals in sediment were higher than those in the water body, occurring in the sequence Zn>Cu>Fe >Cd. The ranges were Zn (1.4-5mg/kg), Cu (0.8-3mg/kg), Fe (0.4-4.9mg/kg) and Cd (0.5-1.8mg/kg). All relationship were statistically significant (p=0.05). With regards to seasonal variation, dry season recorded higher values than rainy season. Heavy metals in sediment were higher than those in the water body, occurring in the sequence Zn>Cu>Fe >Cd. The ranges were Zn (1.4-5mg/kg), Cu (0.8-3mg/kg), Fe (0.4-4.9mg/kg) and Cd (0.5-1.8mg/kg). Cd and Fe in water and sediment have higher concentration during the dry season while Cu and Zn are higher during the rainy season in both parameters during the study period. Increased level of pollutants in the Orashi River may have significant effect on the ecological balance of the River. Again, long term bioaccumulation through food chain is a major concern as this study had revealed that sediment act as sink of pollutant loads than the water samples.

It has been internationally accented that use of resistant variety is a key strategy to save maize (Zea mays L.) grains from the pernicious activities of the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Therefore, twenty improved varieties and one local maize variety were studied in the laboratory using standard methods. The test varieties were selected because they are palatable, good-yielding and survive early season planting. Patterns of S. zeamais susceptibility index and adult mortality were plotted. Association between susceptibility index and adult mortality revealed that the two are connected in an inverse relationship. Eight varieties (38%) were resistant to S. zeamais attack. Aside allowing significantly minimal support for the survival and the development of S. zeamais, the varieties were consistently least damaged and lost. The cultivation and use of the resistant varieties identified will permit the postharvest storage of maize for long duration and reduce other problems associated with S. zeamais infestation. Thirteen moderately resistant maize varieties (62%) were revealed and their use under long storage condition should come with caution. The local maize variety had equivalent inherent moderate resistance with 57% of the varieties investigated. Most of the resistant maize varieties showed high viability when planted in the laboratory. This is an added advantage.

The insecticidal activities, toxic and histopathological effects of clove, Syzygium aromaticum L. were studied. Adult male albino rats weighing 150-60 g maintained in standard cages with free access to food and water were used for this experiment in year 2020. The plant powder was cold macerated in methanol to produce filtrate reconstituted for determination of median lethal dose (LD50) using Bruce's revised up and down procedure. Other assays followed standard methods too. The results showed that the botanical material, host resistance and permethrin are effective in controlling the maize weevil pest, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky infesting stored maize grains. Varietal resistance had no effect on the mortality of S. zeamais adults caused by S. aromaticum botanical insecticide at short storage period. Dry flower bud powder of clove, permethrin standard insecticide and resistance status had no effect on seed viability of maize grains when planted. The LD50 for S. aromaticum flower bud powder extract was 3000 mg kg-1 and this caused chills, convulsion and eventual death of the rats. The lowest weight gain in group IV rats administered 75% of the powder (2250 mg kg-1) in diet was an index of high powder concentration. The study revealed that 25 (750 mg kg-1) and 50% (1500 mg kg-1) supplementation of S. aromaticum did not adversely affect the serum biochemical indices, liver and kidney of the albino rats. The 75% S. aromaticum supplementation caused physiological damage in the animals. Therefore, supplementation of < 75% is recommended in the safe use of the botanical insecticide in pest control and herbal therapy.

Background: This is a report of an on-going hospital based study on the possible effects of probiotics on the intestinal parasites and enteric bacteria of people living with HIV/AIDS on antiretroviral therapy in Abakaliki Ebonyi State. Methods & Materials: Stool samples were taken from consenting 108 HIV positive individuals and 25 healthy controls pre- and post-treatment with commercial probiotics to determine the possible effects of probiotics on their intestinal parasites and enteric bacteria. Results: The result of the pre-test showed that out of the 133 persons studied, there was only 1case of intestinal parasite found amongst the control group (n = 25): Giardia lamblia (4.0%), while amongst the 108 HIV positive group, 62(57.4%) had intestinal parasites. The intestinal parasites found were the protozoans: Cryptosporidium parvum 14(22.6%), G. lamblia 12(19.4%), Cyclospora cayetanensis 8(12.9%), Entamoeba histolytica 6(9.7%), Balantidium coli 5(8.1%) and helminthes: Schistosoma mansoni 6(9.7%), Strongyloides stercoralis 6(9.7%), Ancylostoma duodenale 5(8.1%). There was a case of co-infections of parasites C. parvum/S. mansoni 1(1.6%). Findings from the post treatment analysis of stool samples from the HIV positive group revealed 8(7.4%) individuals with intestinal parasites as follows: Protozoans: E. histolytica 1(12.5%), and helminthes: A. duodenale 2(25%), S. mansoni 3(37.5%), S. stercoralis 2(25%). The pre-treatment enteric bacteria observed in the HIV positive persons examined, 100/108 (92.6%) include: coliform 32(32%), E. coli 31(31%), Klebsiella spp. 23(23%), Shigella spp. 3(3%), Proteus spp. 11(11%) and normal flora 0(0%). While amongst the control group coliform 6(24%), E. coli 2(8%), Klebsiella spp. 0(0%), Proteus spp. 0(0%), Shigella spp. 0(0%) and normal flora 17(68%) were observed. The post treatment findings on enteric bacteria of the HIV positive group showed 42/108 (38.8%), with coliform 3(7.14%), E. coli 18(42.9%), Proteus spp. 5(11.9%), Klebsiella spp. 16(38.1%) and Shigella spp. 0(0%). Conclusion: Analysis of the findings indicate that the commercial probiotics used in the study did have a significant effect on the intestinal parasites of HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy while an effect on the enteric bacteria was observed but it was not statistically significant. Probiotics may play a positive role in improving the lifespan of people living with HIV.

Introduction Periodontal disease, like dental caries and some forms of halitosis, is initiated by microbial activity in the oral cavity. It is well known that the presence of protozoa may be established both in persons with pathological alterations in the oral cavity and in those with no such symptoms. Purpose This study was carried out to assess the relationship between periodontal health status and infection with human oral protozoan parasites in Ogbeke-Nike Community of Enugu State, Nigeria. Materials and methods The study design adopted for this research work was cross-sectional survey. A total of 233 participants were selected, using the convenience non-probability sampling technique, from 6 rural villages in Ogbeke-Nike community in Enugu-East LGA of Enugu State and were studied, using questionnaires, clinical assessments and parasitological techniques. Results Analyses of data from the study revealed that participants who had gingivitis yielded a higher prevalence of human oral protozoan parasites (57.58%), E. gingivalis (24.24%), T. tenax (9.09%) and the mixed infections (24.24%) than participants with healthy periodontium (31.09%, 14.51%, 7.25%, 9.33%, respectively) or periodontitis (14.29%, 14.29%, 0.00%, 0.00%, respectively). These results suggested that the prevalence of human oral protozoan parasites was related to periodontal health status of participants. This relationship was statistically significant (p<0.05). Conclusions Human oral protozoan parasites infection is a reality in the study population. Strict attendance to daily oral hygiene and seeking professional help with incipient periodontal problems may help control the prevalence of the study organisms in the oral cavity of humans.

A recent article Is onchocerciasis elimination in Africa feasible by 2025: a perspective based on lessons learnt from the African control programmes in Infectious Diseases of Poverty claimed that undue influence on African programs by concepts developed by the Onchocerciasis Elimination Program of the Americas (OEPA) is detrimental to stopping mass drug administration (MDA) in Africa. This claim is made despite a record year for MDA stoppage in four African countries of >3.5 million treatments in 2018, far exceeding any past OEPA or African Program for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) stop MDA success.