Ovine gammaherpesviruses 2 (OvGHV2), a member of the Macavirus genus within the Orthoherpesviridae family, causes lymphoproliferative diseases in susceptible species, most notably sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever. Research on OvGHV2 has been hindered by the absence of a permissive cell culture system, limiting investigations into viral replication, entry mechanisms and cell tropism. This challenge constrains progress towards understanding OvGHV2 pathogenesis and developing effective vaccines or therapeutics. We investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying OvGHV2 infection, focusing on the nuclear trafficking pathways of the latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA), encoded by ORF73. In other gammaherpesviruses, LANA is known to mediate viral episome maintenance, chromatin tethering and latency through its nuclear localization. We identified and functionally characterized a novel bipartite nuclear localization signal (NLS) within the C-terminal region of OvGHV2 LANA and elucidated its interactions with host nuclear import receptors. Using high-resolution crystallography and quantitative binding assays, we mapped the key residues responsible for binding to importin alpha (IMP α ) and demonstrated isoform-specific variations in binding affinity. Confocal microscopy revealed that the OvGHV2 LANA predominantly localizes to the nucleus through an IMP α / β 1-dependent pathway, as mutation or inhibition of the NLS significantly reduced nuclear accumulation. Interestingly, partial nuclear localization under these conditions suggests an additional IMP α / β 1-independent nuclear import mechanism. Collectively, our biochemical and structural analyses confirm that the identified NLS is essential for IMP α -mediated nuclear import of OvGHV2 LANA. These findings provide new insights into OvGHV2 host interactions and establish a molecular basis for developing targeted antiviral strategies against ovine gammaherpesvirus 2 infection.

ΔNp63α is a master regulator of epithelial development, driving the expansion of progenitor cells in stratified epithelia. Mutations in ΔNp63α are linked to squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and basal cell carcinomas (BCCs), as well as to ectodermal dysplasia syndromes such as ectrodactyly-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting (EEC) and ankyloblepharon-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting (AEC). Although ΔNp63α functions as a nuclear transcription factor, the mechanisms underlying its nuclear import remain incompletely understood. By combining imaging, biochemical, structural and functional assays, we have thoroughly characterized ΔNp63α nuclear import, as mediated by the importin (IMP) α/β1 heterodimer. We also show here that ΔNp63α has evolved a peculiar strategy to ensure mutation tolerant nuclear localization, which is essential for DNA binding and transcriptional regulation. Despite a canonical bipartite NLS formed by two stretches of basic amino acids was identified between the DNA binding and oligomerization domains, each of them in sufficient to bind both IMPα binding sites upon homodimerization. Therefore, in contrast to most known bipartite NLSs, only simultaneous substitution of both basic stretches of amino acids ablated nuclear localization, interaction with IMPα, and decreased transcriptional activity. Since several ΔNp63α isoforms which lack the N-terminal basic stretch of amino acids have been described, and a number of mutations in the ΔNp63α NLS region have been identified in the Genome Aggregation Database, ΔNp63α has specifically evolved to tolerate mutations in its NLS without significantly compromising its ability to localize in the nucleus. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Presentation of metabolites by the major histocompatibility complex class I-related - related protein 1 (MR1) molecule to mucosalassociated invariant T cells is impaired during herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) infections. This is surprising given these viruses do not directly synthesise MR1 ligands. We have previously identified fi ed several HSV proteins responsible for rapidly downregulating the intracellular pool of immature MR1, effectively inhibiting new surface antigen presentation, while preexisting ligand-bound mature MR1 is unexpectedly upregulated by HSV-1. Using fl ow cytometry, immunoblotting, and high-throughput fl uorescence microscopy, we demonstrate that the endocytosis of surface MR1 is impaired during HSV infection and that internalized molecules accumulate in EEA1-labeled early endosomes, avoiding degradation. We establish that the short MR1 cytoplasmic tail is not required for HSV-1-mediated - mediated downregulation of immature molecules; however it may play a role in the retention of mature molecules on the surface and in early endosomes. We also determine that the HSV-1 US3 protein, the shorter US3.5 kinase and the full-length HSV-2 homolog, all predominantly target mature surface rather than total MR1 levels. We propose that the downregulation of intracellular and cell surface MR1 molecules by US3 and other HSV proteins is an immune-evasive countermeasure to minimize the effect of impaired MR1 endocytosis, which might otherwise render infected cells susceptible to MR1-mediated killing by mucosalassociated invariant T cells.

The development of accurate spatial conceptualisations of molecular biology structures, processes and interactions represents a critical learning outcome for a wide array of life sciences students. In this study, we investigated student learning through a bespoke virtual reality (VR) simulation focused on interactive assembly of an expression vector and visualisation of the recombinant protein expression process, encompassing constructivist pedagogical principles. A mixed methods approach was pursued involving surveys, assessments, and online simulation data capture to facilitate student partnered inputs into virtual simulation design and implementation in the teaching of molecular and cellular biology. The scope of student learning modalities, effective teaching practices and perspectives on challenging curriculum were also captured to position VR implementation within a wider learning framework. Students expressed a consensus view towards the application of this innovative teaching modality and appear well equipped to adapt to this new teaching and learning approach. The visual and kinaesthetic elements of the simulations were found to offer a unique entry point to challenging and abstract molecular concepts that has the potential to transform life science education for students, where a partnership approach can best deliver a roadmap for effective integration into the curriculum.

Summary: The major histocompatibility complex (MHC), Class-I-related (MR1) molecule presents microbiome-synthesized metabolites to Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, present at sites of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. During HSV type 1 (HSV-1) infection there is a profound and rapid loss of MR1, in part due to expression of unique short 3 protein. Here we show that virion host shutoff RNase protein downregulates MR1 protein, through loss of MR1 transcripts. Furthermore, a third viral protein, infected cell protein 22, also downregulates MR1, but not classical MHC-I molecules. This occurs early in the MR1 trafficking pathway through proteasomal degradation. Finally, HSV-2 infection results in the loss of MR1 transcripts, and intracellular and surface MR1 protein, comparable to that seen during HSV-1 infection. Thus HSV coordinates a multifaceted attack on the MR1 antigen presentation pathway, potentially protecting infected cells from MAIT cell T cell receptor-mediated detection at sites of primary infection and reactivation.

Adenovirus protein VII (pVII) is a highly basic core protein, bearing resemblance to mammalian histones. Despite its diverse functions, a comprehensive understanding of its structural intricacies and the mechanisms underlying its functions remain elusive, primarily due to the complexity of producing a good amount of soluble pVII. This study aimed to optimise the expression and purification of recombinant pVII from four different adenoviruses with a simple vector construct. This study successfully determined the optimal conditions for efficiently purifying pVII across four adenovirus species, revealing the differential preference for bacterial expression systems. The One Shot BL21 Star (DE3) proved favourable over Rosetta 2 (DE3) pLysS with consistent levels of expression between IPTG-induced and auto-induction. We demonstrated that combining chemical and mechanical cell lysis is possible and highly effective. Other noteworthy benefits were observed in using RNase during sample processing. The addition of RNase has significantly improved the quality and quantity of the purified protein as confirmed by chromatographic and western blot analyses. These findings established a solid groundwork for pVII purification methodologies and carry the significant potential to assist in unveiling the core structure of pVII, its arrangement within the core, DNA condensation intricacies, and potential pathways for nuclear transport.

Adenoviral pVII proteins are multifunctional, highly basic, histone-like proteins that can bind to and transport the viral genome into the host cell nucleus. Despite the identification of several nuclear localization signals (NLSs) in the pVII protein of human adenovirus (HAdV)2, the mechanistic details of nuclear transport are largely unknown. Here we provide a full characterization of the nuclear import of precursor (Pre-) pVII protein from an ancient siadenovirus, frog siadenovirus 1 (FrAdV1), using a combination of structural, functional, and biochemical approaches. Two strong NLSs (termed NLSa and NLSd) interact with importin (IMP)β1 and IMPα, respectively, and are the main drivers of nuclear import. A weaker NLS (termed NLSb) also contributes, together with an additional signal (NLSc) which we found to be important for nucleolar targeting and intranuclear binding. Expression of wild-type and NLS defective derivatives Pre-pVII in the presence of selective inhibitors of different nuclear import pathways revealed that, unlike its human counterpart, FrAdV1 Pre-pVII nuclear import is dependent on IMPα/β1 and IMPβ1, but not on transportin-1 (IMPβ2). Clearly, AdVs evolved to maximize the nuclear import pathways for the pVII proteins, whose subcellular localization is the result of a complex process. Therefore, our results pave the way for an evolutionary comparison of the interaction of different AdVs with the host cell nuclear transport machinery.

Presentation of metabolites by the Major Histocompatibility Complex Class-I-related protein 1 (MR1) molecule to Mucosal-Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells is impaired during herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) infections. This is surprising given these viruses do not directly synthesise MR1 ligands. We have previously identified several HSV proteins responsible for rapidly downregulating the intracellular pool of immature MR1, effectively inhibiting new surface antigen presentation, while pre-existing ligand-bound mature MR1 is surprisingly upregulated by HSV-1. Using flow cytometry, immunoblotting and high throughput fluorescence microscopy we demonstrate that the endocytosis of surface MR1 is impaired during HSV infection, and that internalised molecules accumulate in EEA1-labelled early endosomes, avoiding degradation. We establish that the short MR1 cytoplasmic tail is not required for HSV-1 mediated downregulation of immature molecules, however it may play a role in the retention of mature molecules on the surface and in early endosomes. We also determine that the HSV-1 US3 protein, the shorter US3.5 kinase and the full-length HSV-2 homolog, all predominantly target mature surface rather than total MR1 levels. We propose that the downregulation of intracellular and cell surface MR1 molecules by US3 and other HSV proteins is an immune-evasive countermeasure to minimise the effect of impaired MR1 endocytosis, which might otherwise render infected cells susceptible to MR1-mediated killing by MAIT cells.

Adenovirus protein VII (pVII) plays a crucial role in the nuclear localization of genomic DNA following viral infection and contains nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequences for the importin (IMP)-mediated nuclear import pathway. However, functional analysis of pVII in adenoviruses to date has failed to fully determine the underlying mechanisms responsible for nuclear import of pVII. Therefore, in the present study, we extended our analysis by examining the nuclear trafficking of adenovirus pVII from a non-human species, psittacine siadenovirus F (PsSiAdV). We identified a putative classical (c)NLS at pVII residues 120–128 (120PGGFKRRRL128). Fluorescence polarization and electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated direct, high-affinity interaction with both IMPα2 and IMPα3 but not IMPβ. Structural analysis of the pVII-NLS/IMPα2 complex confirmed a classical interaction, with the major binding site of IMPα occupied by K124 of pVII-NLS. Quantitative confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that PsSiAdV pVII-NLS can confer IMPα/β-dependent nuclear localization to GFP. PsSiAdV pVII also localized in the nucleus when expressed in the absence of other viral proteins. Importantly, in contrast to what has been reported for HAdV pVII, PsSiAdV pVII does not localize to the nucleolus. In addition, our study demonstrated that inhibition of the IMPα/β nuclear import pathway did not prevent PsSiAdV pVII nuclear targeting, indicating the existence of alternative pathways for nuclear localization, similar to what has been previously shown for human adenovirus pVII. Further examination of other potential NLS signals, characterization of alternative nuclear import pathways, and investigation of pVII nuclear targeting across different adenovirus species is recommended to fully elucidate the role of varying nuclear import pathways in the nuclear localization of pVII.

Introduction The antigen presentation molecule MHC class I related protein-1 (MR1) is best characterized by its ability to present bacterially derived metabolites of vitamin B2 biosynthesis to mucosal-associated invariant T-cells (MAIT cells). Methods Through in vitro human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in the presence of MR1 ligand we investigate the modulation of MR1 expression. Using coimmunoprecipitation, mass spectrometry, expression by recombinant adenovirus and HCMV deletion mutants we investigate HCMV gpUS9 and its family members as potential regulators of MR1 expression. The functional consequences of MR1 modulation by HCMV infection are explored in coculture activation assays with either Jurkat cells engineered to express the MAIT cell TCR or primary MAIT cells. MR1 dependence in these activation assays is established by addition of MR1 neutralizing antibody and CRISPR/Cas-9 mediated MR1 knockout. Results Here we demonstrate that HCMV infection efficiently suppresses MR1 surface expression and reduces total MR1 protein levels. Expression of the viral glycoprotein gpUS9 in isolation could reduce both cell surface and total MR1 levels, with analysis of a specific US9 HCMV deletion mutant suggesting that the virus can target MR1 using multiple mechanisms. Functional assays with primary MAIT cells demonstrated the ability of HCMV infection to inhibit bacterially driven, MR1-dependent activation using both neutralizing antibodies and engineered MR1 knockout cells. Discussion This study identifies a strategy encoded by HCMV to disrupt the MR1:MAIT cell axis. This immune axis is less well characterized in the context of viral infection. HCMV encodes hundreds of proteins, some of which regulate the expression of antigen presentation molecules. However the ability of this virus to regulate the MR1:MAIT TCR axis has not been studied in detail.

The antigen presentation molecule MR1 (major histocompatibility complex, class I-related) presents ligands derived from the riboflavin (vitamin B) synthesis pathway, which is not present in mammalian species or viruses, to mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. In this study, we demonstrate that varicella zoster virus (VZV) profoundly suppresses MR1 expression. We show that VZV targets the intracellular reservoir of immature MR1 for degradation, while preexisting, ligand-bound cell surface MR1 is protected from such targeting, thereby highlighting an intricate temporal relationship between infection and ligand availability. We also identify VZV open reading frame (ORF) 66 as functioning to suppress MR1 expression when this viral protein is expressed during transient transfection, but this is not apparent during infection with a VZV mutant virus lacking ORF66 expression. This indicates that VZV is likely to encode multiple viral genes that target MR1. Overall, we identify an immunomodulatory function of VZV whereby infection suppresses the MR1 biosynthesis pathway.

While adenoviruses cause infections in a wide range of vertebrates, members of the genus Atadenovirus, Siadenovirus, and Aviadenovirus predominantly infect avian hosts. Several recent studies on avian adenoviruses have encouraged us to re-visit previously proposed adenovirus evolutionary concepts. Complete genomes and partial DNA polymerase sequences of avian adenoviruses were extracted from NCBI and analysed using various software. Genomic analyses and constructed phylogenetic trees identified the atadenovirus origin from an Australian native passerine bird in contrast to the previously established reptilian origin. In addition, we demonstrated that the theories on higher AT content in atadenoviruses are no longer accurate and cannot be considered as a species demarcation criterion for the genus Atadenovirus. Phylogenetic reconstruction further emphasised the need to reconsider siadenovirus origin, and we recommend extended studies on avian adenoviruses in wild birds to provide finer evolutionary resolution.

Molecular biology theory represents a critical scaffold, which underpins multiple disciplines within life sciences education. However, it is well-documented that undergraduate students can struggle to achieve deeper understanding of key concepts and/or their application. One challenging, contributory aspect is the "invisible" nature of molecular biology processes compounded by critical 3D spatial orientations of the principal components and their interactions. Molecular theory specifically requires students to construct accurate, mental spatial models to develop their understanding. However, much of the traditional teaching and examination of such theory is limited to 2D representations. Technology-enhanced, complementary teaching and examination approaches, which engage students with spatial aspects of theoretical concepts, offer an exciting opportunity to support student learning in this area. In this study, we have explored the integration of an immersive virtual reality simulation based on a challenging molecular biology concept within an existing module taught at University College Cork. A mixed methods approach, grounded in learning theory, was undertaken to assess the student user and learning experience. The consensus response from students was one of enhanced learning, understanding, engagement, and motivation. Student partnership in the process of simulation design and integration was key to delivering the fully integrated experience.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcript factor that plays an important role in regulating immunity and cell differentiation. However, its role in cell-autonomous antiviral resistance has not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that interruption of AHR signaling in human cells by a chemical antagonist or genetic targeting led to significant reductions in the replication of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and cytomegalovirus (CMV), revealing an unexpected proviral function of AHR. Interestingly, the enhanced viral control in the absence of AHR is independent of type I interferon (IFN) signaling. Together, these results reveal a previously unknown function of AHR in promoting viral replication in vitro and suggest a potential intervention point for treating viral disease. IMPORTANCE This study describes how a virus might utilize host aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling to promote its replication, even in the presence of type I interferons.

The rapidly expanding biotechnology sector horizon is expected to create a surge in demand for expertise underpinning cell and gene therapies, which are recognized as the next generation of medicines. New and innovative approaches to implement active and performative learning in the Molecular Life Sciences are required to support this and to address limitations associated with traditional “front of class” lectern delivery of challenging, three dimensional molecular concepts. Therefore, an immediate need exists for the development and implementation of immersive learning approaches in Virology, Cellular Sciences and Molecular Biology to underpin sustainable development of graduate students for academic and industrial research careers. The Covid-19 pandemic has led to significant changes in the delivery of education globally, with online engagement and accelerated uptake of novel teaching and assessment modalities into majority practice within institutions. This development has been driven by externally imposed necessity and it remains to be seen what form teaching and learning will take post-Covid. Irrespective of the pandemic, technologies are available which can serve intrinsically motivated, discipline specific shifts toward enhanced learner experiences and learning outcomes. Immersive virtual reality offers one such approach to open new entry points for student learning of abstract molecular concepts, which will be just as relevant upon our return to face-to-face teaching. Key to delivering this will be engagement and collaboration by disciplinary and technical experts. Here, we discuss global advances in the area of VR and Molecular Science education and assess potential paths forward for teaching and learning impact and innovative education.

Long Term Disruption of Cytokine Signalling Networks are Evident Following SARS-CoV-2 InfectionSinead Ahearn-Ford1, Nonhlanhla Lunjani1, Brian McSharry1,2, John MacSharry1,2,3, Liam Fanning1,3, Gerard Murphy4, Cormac Everard4, Aoife Barry4, Aimee McGreal4, Sultan Mohamed al Lawati4, Susan Lapthorne4, Colin Sherlock4, Anna McKeogh4, Arthur Jackson4, Eamonn Faller4, Mary Horgan3,4, Corinna Sadlier4, Liam O'Mahony1,2,3*1APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland2School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland3Department of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland4 Department of Infectious Diseases, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland*Corresponding author – liam.omahony@ucc.ieTo the Editor,The current pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has so far infected more than 130 million people worldwide, resulting in approximately 3 million deaths. While the current clinical and public health priorities are designed to limit severe acute and fatal episodes of the disease, and to quickly roll out vaccines to the general population, it has become apparent that there may also be significant detrimental long-term effects following SARS-CoV-2 infection that impact daily functioning and quality of life1. The mechanisms underpinning the post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection's long-lasting symptoms can include direct effects of the infection (e.g. endothelial damage, lung fibrosis) or indirect effects associated with changes in the microbiome or abnormalities in inflammatory and immune signalling pathways stimulated by the infection2,3.In order to examine the potential long-term immune changes that occur following elimination of the primary infection, we examined the levels of 52 cytokines and growth factors (using MSD multiplex kits) in the serum of patients that attended follow-up post-COVID infection clinics at Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland (The Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Cork Teaching Hospitals approved this study and all patients provided informed consent). All patients had been hospitalised for PCR-proven SARS-CoV-2 infection (median in-patient stay of 5.5 days, range 1 day to 24 days) during the first wave of the pandemic in Ireland (March-May 2020). 38 serum samples were obtained from 24 patients (median age 53.5 years, 11 female) at 3-9 months following hospital discharge. Clinical severity ranged from mild to critical during hospitalisation and the most common symptoms at follow-up clinics were fatigue and/or dyspnoea (supplementary Table S1). Sera obtained prior to the pandemic from 29 healthy volunteers (median age 43.2 years, 14 female) were analysed in parallel.Of the 52 analytes measured, 19 were significantly elevated in post-COVID patient sera compared to healthy controls (supplementary Table S2). These 19 mediators are illustrated as dot plots in Figure 1 and Figure 2. One group of mediators, c-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid A (SAA), Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), IL-6, IL-8, IL-15, IL-16, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 and MCP-4, can be broadly categorised as being associated with ongoing inflammatory responses (Figure 1a)4. These mediators remained as elevated in samples taken 6-9 months following hospital discharge as those levels observed 3-6 months following discharge (p<0.05 versus controls, ANOVA). A second group of mediators, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A), soluble tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Tie-2 (Tie-2), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM-1) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), can be generally associated with endothelial dysfunction, remodelling and angiogenesis (Figure 1b)5. The remaining elevated mediators are associated with patterns of lymphocyte polarisation. Elevated IL-4, macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) sera levels indicate activation of TH2 responses (Figure 2a), while IL-17A, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3α and IL-12/23p40 indicate ongoing TH17 activity (Figure 2b). Other indicators of TH2-associated activities are just outside statistical significance (IL-5, p=0.06; supplementary Table S2). While TH1 responses are well described to be upregulated during acute infection6, the levels of these mediators (e.g. IFN-γ, IP-10) decrease following elimination of the virus and are at control levels in our cohort of post-COVID patients (supplementary Table S2).Our data suggests that there are long term immunological consequences following SARS-CoV-2 infection, at least in those that had acute symptoms severe enough to require hospitalisation. While the relatively low number of patients included in our study at this stage does not allow us to perform subgroup analysis, it is possible that these immune mediators may associate with clinically meaningful disease variables and ultimately may be of therapeutic value, if findings are replicated in future studies. Of particular interest is the elevation in TH2-associated mediators. Could this response be a component of the mucosal repair mechanisms that occur following viral damage, or does this indicate new TH2-associated pathological immune activity that might underpin an increased risk of developing allergy or asthma? Clearly the potential immune mechanisms underpinning the emerging post-COVID clinical entities will become increasingly more important to understand as the health care systems adapt to caring for large numbers of COVID-19 survivors during the coming months and years.

or does this indicate new T H 2- associated pathological immune activity that might underpin an increased risk of developing allergy or asthma? Clearly, the potential immune mechanisms underpinning the emerging post- COVID clinical entities will become increasingly more important to understand as the healthcare systems adapt to caring for large numbers of COVID- 19 survivors during the coming months and years.

Herpesviruses are known to encode a number of inhibitors of host cell death, including RIP Homotypic Interaction Motif (RHIM)-containing proteins. Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a member of the alphaherpesvirus subfamily and is responsible for causing chickenpox and shingles. We have identified a novel viral RHIM in the VZV capsid triplex protein, open reading frame (ORF) 20, that acts as a host cell death inhibitor. Like the human cellular RHIMs in RIPK1 and RIPK3 that stabilise the necrosome in TNF-induced necroptosis, and the viral RHIM in M45 from murine cytomegalovirus that inhibits cell death, the ORF20 RHIM is capable of forming fibrillar functional amyloid complexes. Notably, the ORF20 RHIM forms hybrid amyloid complexes with human ZBP1, a cytoplasmic sensor of viral nucleic acid. Although VZV can inhibit TNF-induced necroptosis, the ORF20 RHIM does not appear to be responsible for this inhibition. In contrast, the ZBP1 pathway is identified as important for VZV infection. Mutation of the ORF20 RHIM renders the virus incapable of efficient spread in ZBP1-expressing HT-29 cells, an effect which can be reversed by the inhibition of caspases. Therefore we conclude that the VZV ORF20 RHIM is important for preventing ZBP1-driven apoptosis during VZV infection, and propose that it mediates this effect by sequestering ZBP1 into decoy amyloid assemblies.

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (herpes zoster). VZV and other members of the herpesvirus family are distinguished by their ability to establish a latent infection, with the potential to reactivate and spread virus to other susceptible individuals. This lifelong relationship continually subjects VZV to the host immune system and as such VZV has evolved a plethora of strategies to evade and manipulate the immune response. This review will focus on our current understanding of the innate anti-viral control mechanisms faced by VZV. We will also discuss the diverse array of strategies employed by VZV to regulate these innate immune responses and highlight new knowledge on the interactions between VZV and human innate immune cells.