Empathy is a fundamental human ability that combines perception, understanding and emotional response to other people’s experiences. As a complex phenomenon, it encompasses both affective and cognitive components and plays a key role in ethical behaviour, social connectedness, prosocial behaviour and building interpersonal relationships. Today’s digital communication, which is increasingly replacing face-to-face contact, is significantly changing the way empathy is expressed and raises questions about the possibility of maintaining emotional authenticity in technologically mediated environments. In digital communication, empathy is mostly conveyed through text messages, emoticons (emojis) and other symbolic expressions, while physical presence and non-verbal cues are largely absent. This affects the relationship between cognitive and affective empathy and poses challenges for the understanding, perception and expression of emotions. Digital empathy theory emphasises that technology does not preclude empathy, but requires new approaches that include conscious emotional responsiveness, developed communication sensitivity and a supportive environment. The article analyses the key differences between traditional and digital empathy, highlighting the influence of communication channels, time dynamics, technological mediations and user practises. Given the tendencies towards depersonalisation, fragmentation and asynchrony in digital communication, it highlights the importance of developing strategies to maintain empathic skills as a fundamental element of quality interpersonal connection in the digital age.

The formation of a secure and safe attachment relationship with God is an essential element in the process of religious coping with distress. This is a crucial aspect that must be integrated into the psychotherapeutic process. This paper presents an interdisciplinary approach that emphasises the importance of the spiritual element in therapeutic work. It draws on the theoretical foundations of attachment theory and religious coping to explore how a relationship with God can become a safe starting point in relational psychotherapy and how spirituality can be integrated into the therapeutic process. In doing so, it opens up a discussion on the relationship between faith, psychological well-being and effective therapeutic approaches that can enrich the understanding and practice of relational psychotherapy.

Introduction: Emotional factors are often specified as playing an important role in the context of problematic alcohol use and alcohol addiction. Aims: This study focused on examining the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation, perceived personal problems, and problematic alcohol use. Methods: 374 participants from the general population in Slovenia and Croatia (34.8% men, 65.2% women) with an average age of 44.28 years (range: 26 to 74 years) completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), Individual Problems and Strengths Scale (IPS) and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale – Short Form (DERS-SF). Results: A higher level of problematic alcohol use positively correlated with difficulties in emotion regulation and the assessment of individual problems (p ≤ .010). Multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that higher AUDIT scores were positively associated with two dimensions of difficulties in emotion regulation: impulse control difficulties (β = 0.22, p = .008) and lack of emotional awareness (β = 0.15, p = .010). Difficulties in emotion regulation completely mediated the effect of individual problems on problematic alcohol use (indirect effect: 0.18, CI [–.06, –.31]; p < .001): higher levels of individual problems contribute to higher levels of problematic alcohol use through the effect of difficulties in emotion regulation. Conclusions: The findings indicate the vulnerability of individuals with difficulties in emotion regulation to problematic alcohol use. Difficulties in emotion regulation are an important factor to consider for understanding the development, maintenance, and treatment of alcoholism and problematic alcohol use.

Uvod: Doživetje in preživetje akutnega življenjsko ogrožajočega zdravstvenega stanja je visoko stresen(travmatičen) dogodek, ki pomembno vpliva na življenje posameznika in njegovih svojcev, zato je bil namenobravnavane raziskave preučiti povezavo izkušnje tovrstnega dogodka s čustvenim doživljanjem. Metode: Opravljeni sta bili deskriptivna in korelacijska presečna raziskava na udeležencih z izkušnjo akutnega življenjsko ogrožajočega zdravstvenega stanja (n = 54) in svojcih(n = 59). Rezultati: Ozaveščanje čustev kot način soočanja z življenjsko ogrožajočimi stanji je pozitivno povezano z življenjsko uspešnostjo (r = 0,455, p < 0,01), posttravmatsko rastjo (r = 0,341, p < 0,01) in doživljanjem individualnih moči (r = 0,337, p < 0,01). Izražanje čustev kot način soočanja je pozitivno povezano z življenjsko uspešnostjo (r = 0,416, p < 0,01), posttravmatsko rastjo (r = 0,252, p < 0,05) in doživljanjem individualnih moči (r = 0,481, p < 0,01). Spoprijemanje s čustvi pri pacientih pojasnjuje spol (β = –0,51), pri svojcih pa posttravmatska rast (β = 0,41) in individualne moči (β = 0,51). Diskusija in zaključek: Čustveno spoprijemanje ob soočanju s posledicami življenjsko ogrožajočega akutnega zdravstvenega stanja ima pomembno vlogo pri posttravmatski rasti, večjem občutku življenjske uspešnosti in individualnih moči. Ustrezno čustveno soočanje s stresom ob doživetju in preživetju življenjsko ogrožajočega zdravstvenega stanja je ključnega pomena pri uspešni prilagoditvi na življenje po tem dogodku.

Alcoholism, which is a major public health and social problem, can be viewed from several perspectives, as its occurrence is a multifaceted phenomenon in terms of its development (causes), effects, and maintenance. The Relational Family Therapy paradigm looks at alcoholism and its dynamics in relation to dysfunctional affect regulation. Dysfunctional affect regulation and the general inability to manage emotions are often mentioned in relation to the development and maintenance of alcohol addiction. The mechanism of affect regulation generally refers to internal processes that allow an individual to maintain their emotions to a degree that feels still bearable for them. According to these assumptions, alcoholics drink in order to cope with difficult emotions, either because they have more negative emotional states than others do, or because they lack the internal resources to cope with these negative emotions. For them, consuming alcohol is a series of repeated attempts to regulate heavy emotions, which often stem from painful past experiences. The process of Relational Family Therapy, therefore, as treatment of addiction, focuses on identifying and transforming the dysfunctional regulation of affect, which is behind addictive behavior. By means of action research methodology, this paper presents the approach of Relational Family Therapy in working with an alcoholic client, with an emphasis on the aspects of affect regulation. We show how the client’s alcohol use appeared as a dynamic of inappropriate regulation of a painful core affect. In the process of Relational Family Therapy, a more functional regulation of the core affect was established, thereby reducing symptomatic behavior (alcoholism) in the client.

Adult children of alcoholics are adults who spent a part of, or their whole childhood in a dysfunctional family, where the biggest problem was alcohol addiction in one or both parents. In families with parental alcoholism, there is usually a lot of dysfunction in interpersonal relationships and in the upbringing of the children, which does not provide a healthy and optimal developmental environment for the child. There is often physical and psychological violence, and other forms of abuse and neglect that children perceive as traumatic. All this leaves the child with severe consequences, which they also struggle with in adulthood. Unresolved and traumatic childhood content often remains repressed and unprocessed and helps shape one’s functioning in adulthood, which is frequently emotionally and socially immature. Adult children of alcoholics often have problems in experiencing and regulating their emotions, as they had to carry many emotional burdens in a dysfunctional family, while they had no real opportunity for the healthy development of emotional regulation. The article will present research on the emotional experience of children with their alcoholic parents and how they recognize related consequences in their adult lives. Using the content analysis method, we analyzed 71 anonymous forum posts on the counselling forum on the topic “Adult children of alcoholics.” The directed approach to content analysis was used to validate forum posts by people who described their childhood experiences with an alcoholic parent. We identified parts of the content that fell into two predetermined categories: emotional experience in childhood with an alcoholic parent and the experience of its consequences in adulthood. The results showed that the adult children of alcoholics mostly experienced severe feelings of fear, shame, sadness and disgust with their alcoholic parents in their childhood, and that these feelings have remained unprocessed. In adulthood, they struggle with negative consequences in the personal sphere (e.g. poor self-esteem, inferiority, anxiety, depression), in interpersonal relationships (e.g. problems in partnerships, mistrust, social phobia, parental stress, complicated relationships with parents) and in everyday functioning (e.g. coping with one’s own addiction, dysfunctional behavioural patterns), but they also recognize that because of this experience they have managed to lay the foundations of their lives differently and better. The results confirm that children are hidden victims of parental alcoholism and justify the need for psychosocial and therapeutic support even in their adulthood.

Recovery from alcoholism is a complex, dynamic, personal and social process aimed not only at abstaining from alcohol but also at improving the quality of various areas of life. In this process, individuals rely on a variety of internal and external resources. One of these is spirituality/religiosity, which contributes to the results of alcoholism treatment in various ways. In this pa-per, where we used the systematic literature review method to analyze 28 dif-ferent studies in the field of spirituality/religiosity in the recovery process from alcoholism, we present findings that indicate the role of spirituality as one of the components in this process. We shed light on several spiritual and religious factors that are, each in its specific way, important support to the individual in the process of recovery from alcoholism.

Violence in an intimate partnership is a form of domestic violence where physical or psychological acts of violence are committed by a partner or spouse against another partner or spouse, and other family members may be victims as well. Its prevalence is worrisome and is not limited to any specific circumstances. It also occurs in Christian families, and research data show that the rate of intimate partner violence in Christian families is no higher or lower compared to the general incidence. That being said, religiosity combined with other factors may contribute to the vulnerability of the victim or the power of the perpetrator. On the other hand, religious values and aspects provide protection and support in preventing violence in Christian families and recovering after violence has occurred. We analysed 18 different studies on intimate partner violence in Christian families using the systematic literature review method, and in this paper, we present findings that indicate which aspects of Christian tradition and practice, in combination with other factors, provide protection and support in preventing violence and helping to recover from it for women who are the victims of violence by their intimate partners.

Numerous findings in scientific literature consistently show the association of intimate partner violence (IPV) and domestic abuse with the risk for and incidence of a series of different physical health conditions and problems. Studies have shown the association of IPV and overall health and wellbeing especially in women. The purpose of the paper is therefore to present an overview of the research in the field of IPV and women’s mental and physical health. Both quantitative and qualitative research studies published from 2012 to 2018 were included in the review. The results show that IPV is associated with several mental health problems in women, such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder, as well as with women’s worse physical health, chronic pain, substance abuse, gynaecological, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems and behavioural syndromes associated with physiological disturbances and physical factors. The article reviews current studies and confirms that the experience of IPV in women has long-term consequences for their physical and mental health.

Sudden cardiac arrest is the most common single cause of death in the contemporary world, but the proportion of survivors is increasing thanks to modern intensive methods of hospital treatment. However, data show that survivors experience high rates of neurological and cognitive deficits and poorer emotional well-being, which is a major challenge in treating these individuals and encouraging their integration in everyday life. These issues range from a number of emotional problems, such as anxiety and depression, to lower levels of participation in social life and a low rate of return to their workplace. The need for security and support increases because of the feelings of insecurity, vulnerability and fear of the recurrence of symptoms. Relatives/caregivers who report emotional problems and a higher level of post-traumatic stress are physically and mentally burdened, too. Hence, sudden cardiac arrest is a life-threatening event which is traumatic for survivors and their close relatives. It triggers strong emotional responses that are characteristic of all types of trauma (reliving the trauma, avoidance, negative thoughts and mood, increased agitation). People who have survived trauma thus suffer long-term effects, which are reflected in various dysfunctional behaviours and activities due to inadequate regulation of affective states. Because of these issues, there is a need for effective interventions that can psychologically help patients and relatives after surviving sudden cardiac arrest. In this paper, we will present the model of Relational Family Therapy, which can enable survivors and their relatives to appropriately emotionally-affectively process this experience and thus more appropriately integrate into a new way of life. With the qualitative research method of task analysis, we will show the process of change, which is based on the establishment of a new regulation of affect and allows in-depth processing of difficult emotional states after this event.

Intimate partner violence against women is a global public health and criminal justice problem that has enormous consequences for the health and wellbeing of millions of women all over the world. It is a form of domestic violence where, in an intimate relationship, physical or psychological acts of violence are perpetrated by a partner or spouse against the other partner or spouse. The purpose of the article is to present the dynamic of violence in an intimate couple relationship with the focus on the victim’s (woman’s) lost dignity. Getting the lost dignity back is the key factor in establishing healthy boundaries, building safety and protection from the violence, and the role of the faith in this context can be crucial. We will present aspects of women’s faith in the Christian tradition that could serve as potential for growth, protection, and support in finishing and recovering from abusive relationships.

Empathy is an important mechanism of interpersonal communication and dialogue. It could be defined as our ability to feel another person’s feelings and thoughts, and thus gain insight into someone else’s experience. By this we put ourselves in the situation of other, which is the fundamental essence of dialogue – to be human with other human. The ability to understand others has always interested many authors. Among them was Edith Stein (1891–1942), one of the important women who marked the 20th century. She was a recognizable philosopher and teacher, born a Jew, and later a Christian and a martyr, and the first Jew born person since the days of the first Church to be canonized. Edith Stein dedicated her doctoral dissertation to empathy, entitled On the Problem of Empathy, and through her later research and way of life revealed what it means to be empathetic and how to live a dialogue with another human being and God. In this paper, we present the fundamental aspects of understanding empathy at Edith Stein and highlight the importance of empathy as a competence that is crucial for real, deep and healthy interpersonal relationships and dialogue.

Intimate partner violence is defined as a form of violence where, in an intimate relationship, physical or psychological acts of violence are committed by a partner or spouse against the other partner or spouse. All of these actions are accompanied by extremely emotional dynamics, which is paradoxical, as we would expect that with the gravity of abusive and violent acts the victims will understand the need for self-protection and appropriate measures. There is a strong emotional bond between the victim and the abuser, which authors call traumatic bonding. It is an emotional dependence between two people in a relationship that is characterized by the feelings of intense attachment, cognitive distortion and behavioural strategies of both individuals that paradoxically strengthen and maintain the bond, which is reflected in a vicious cycle of violence. The termination of such a relationship or the departure from it, from the point of view of attachment which is activated in this situation, seems risky, since the victim seeks refuge in the state of perceived danger, but experiences that - after the outbreak of violence calms down - the refuge is paradoxically offered by the bully. Here we can recognize a pattern of dysfunctional affect regulation that falsely calms difficult (basic) affects and maintains a violent relationship. From the viewpoint of Relational Family Therapy, it is therefore necessary for victims that after breaking off a violent relationship or leaving it they face their painful basic affects and develop proper regulation of these, otherwise they will remain committed to this kind of relationship. Using the case study method, the paper describes the case of a client after she left a violent intimate relationship, with an emphasis on the demonstration of traumatic bonding dynamics and the resolution of their consequences in Relational Family Therapy. [1] The authors acknowledges partial financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (project No. J5-9349).

Coping with the COVID-19 pandemic has revealed different ways individuals react to frustrations they have experienced. Many times we have witnessed an increased level of aggression in interpersonal relationships and in the general social context. We find that there are some differences in coping and responding according to gender, with men showing a higher level of vulnerability and risk of inappropriate regulation and expression of anger when frustrated. To a certain extent, the answer to why this happens is provided by neuroscientific research, which shows that already at an early age, boys’ brains develop differently from girls’, as it takes more time to develop their stress-regulating mechanism; consequently, due to slower development, boys are more vulnerable to early stressful situations and have more problems with self-regulation of affective states at this early age. Together with the possibility of relational trauma in the family, to which many children are exposed from the earliest period of their lives and which plays an important role in providing a context for the development of affect regulation, that means that boys and men are even more vulnerable and sensitive to stress, aggression and trauma later in life. It makes sense to take these neuroscience findings into account when building an understanding of responses to stressful challenges, such as coping with a pandemic, as well as when planning appropriate models to help individuals cope with different types of stress.

Empathy is an important mechanism of interpersonal communication and dialogue.It could be defined as our ability to feel another person's feelings and thoughts, and thus gain insight into someone else's experience.By this we put ourselves in the situation of other, which is the fundamental essence of dialogue -to be human with other human.The ability to understand others has always interested many authors.Among them was Edith Stein (1891Stein ( -1942)), one of the important women who marked the 20 th century.She was a recognizable philosopher and teacher, born a Jew, and later a Christian and a martyr, and the first Jew born person since the days of the first Church to be canonized.Edith Stein dedicated her doctoral dissertation to empathy, entitled On the Problem of Empathy, and through her later research and way of life revealed what it means to be empathetic and how to live a dialogue with another human being and God.In this paper, we present the fundamental aspects of understanding empathy at Edith Stein and highlight the importance of empathy as a competence that is crucial for real, deep and healthy interpersonal relationships and dialogue.

Children who are victims of an early violent atmosphere or early relational trauma will often, even in adulthood, tend to behave violently towards others, or become victims of violence, or freeze and later develop the tendency towards self-injury, in particular in later adolescence. In adulthood, they can be accident-prone, engage in constant violent physical abuse, threaten with or actually commit suicide. In this article we will focus on the impact of violence that children experience from the earliest age, on how it affects their development, and is transmitted to adulthood as well as to younger generations, since violence is imprinted in the deepest organic fibres of every individual.