Past studies have found an unexpectedly small and inconsistent association between perfectionistic standards and test anxiety. One plausible explanation is that the measurement of perfectionistic standards did not differentiate between the pursuit of excellence and perfection. Our primary goal across two studies was to examine the unique associations of excellencism and perfectionistic standards (controlling for each other) with test anxiety among tertiary education students. Consistent with the Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism, the results of Study 1 (N = 273) showed a positive association between perfectionistic standards and test anxiety. A positive association was also observed for secondary outcomes, including fear of failure and mistake rumination. Results of Study 2 (N = 248) replicated these findings for test anxiety and fear of failure. Also, perfectionistic standards were positively associated with catastrophizing about small mistakes, use of reassurance-seeking safety behaviors, and lower self-reported academic performance. When separated from excellencism, perfectionistic standards showed a positive link with test anxiety and variables from its nomological network. Our findings realign empirical knowledge with theories and outline the need to avoid conflating high standards of excellencism with extreme standards of perfectionism in future research examining test anxiety.

People often feel passionate toward meaningful activities in their lives, but this passion can change over time by increasing, decreasing or, in extreme cases, disappearing entirely. Recently, the seasonal attenuation of passion (SAP) hypothesis was proposed to help explain the dynamic nature of passion. The SAP hypothesis predicts that, with seasonal activities, passion tends to decrease within a season but increase between seasons. In this research, we tested this hypothesis and examined several mechanisms that may explain fluctuations in passion over time. Baseball fans (N = 1,254) completed four online surveys throughout the 2023 Major League Baseball season (Times 1–3) and at the start of the 2024 season (Time 4). Each survey assessed indices of passion (harmonious passion, obsessive passion, passion criteria) along with potential mechanisms of change, such as savoring, perceptions of team performance, fan experiences, and team satisfaction. Using piecewise growth modeling, our results showed that (a) average levels of all indices of passion declined throughout the 2023 season, (b) there was very little change in passion between the end of the 2023 MLB season and the start of the 2024 MLB season, and (c) savoring was the most consistent predictor of passion at each time point, such that fans who reported greater savoring also reported greater passion. These results partially support the SAP hypothesis and revealed that people may be able to keep their passion alive by savoring positive experiences in their activity.

Competitive athletes often avoid reminiscing about the milestones they reach as they pursue their goals in sport. We conducted four studies that showed that one reason for this may be the reminiscing-is-debilitating belief-the tendency for people to believe that reminiscing about milestones causes worse future performance. Basketball fans and players (total N = 1,029) read scenarios about athletes who had reached a milestone and were continuing to pursue an ultimate goal. Our results showed that people believed that athletes should reminisce about the milestone for a shorter amount of time to help their future performance (Study 1) and that athletes who were portrayed as reminiscing about their milestone accomplishments were expected to perform worse in a subsequent competition due the expectation that reminiscing reduces preparedness for, and commitment toward, ultimate goals (Studies 2-4). These findings help explain why many athletes avoid maximizing their positive feelings after milestone successes.

People often feel passionate toward meaningful activities in their lives, but this passion can change over time by increasing, decreasing or, in extreme cases, disappearing entirely. Recently, the seasonal attenuation of passion (SAP) hypothesis was proposed to help explain the dynamic nature of passion. The SAP hypothesis predicts that, with seasonal activities, passion tends to decrease within a season but increase between seasons. In this research, we tested this hypothesis and examined several mechanisms that may explain fluctuations in passion over time. Baseball fans (N = 1,254) completed four online surveys throughout the 2023 Major League Baseball season (Times 1–3) and at the start of the 2024 season (Time 4). Each survey assessed indices of passion (harmonious passion, obsessive passion, passion criteria) along with potential mechanisms of change, such as savoring, perceptions of team performance, fan experiences, and team satisfaction. Using piecewise growth modeling, our results showed that (a) average levels of all indices of passion declined throughout the 2023 season, (b) there was very little change in passion between the end of the 2023 MLB season and the start of the 2024 MLB season, and (c) savoring was the most consistent predictor of passion at each time point, such that fans who reported greater savoring also reported greater passion. These results partially support the SAP hypothesis and revealed that people may be able to keep their passion alive by savoring positive experiences in their activity.

Women face a variety of challenges as athletes, many of which are rooted in the gendered nature of sport. Despite these challenges, they have the potential to thrive in sport provided they have access to appropriate resources such as tailored mental performance programs focused on self-compassion. With the current sport psychology evidence base largely focused on sport experiences and program preferences of men athletes, current programs overlook the specific preferences of women athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore competitive women athletes' preferences for learning and practicing self-compassion. Data were generated through focus groups. A total of 19 women athletes, from a variety of sports, took part in focus groups, discussing initial preferences for learning and practicing self-compassion. Focus group data were analysed with thematic analysis, and findings were presented as an infographic to participants for member reflection. A total of 11 women athletes returned for member reflections to help refine final themes. Two preferences in learning self-compassion were (1) multiple interactive professional-led group sessions and (2) sport-integrated progressive pre-season programming. Four preferences in practicing self-compassion were (1) setting self-compassion goals before sport, (2) managing self-talk during sport, (3) compassionately reflecting on performance after sport, and (4) access to support people. A final preference, relevant to both learning and practicing self-compassion, was variety in accessible self-compassion-based resources. The current study advances the sport psychology literature by amplifying women athletes' voices, who continue to call for greater support from the larger sport system.

Introduction. The Social Disconnection Model posits that perfectionism is positively associated with loneliness. However, past studies often failed to report the expected association between perfectionistic standards and indicators of social disconnection, such as loneliness. The recently developed Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism proposes that perfectionistic standards should be differentiated from the pursuit of high but realistic standards (i.e., excellencism). We conducted two studies to test the hypothesis that perfectionistic standards will be positively associated with loneliness once clearly separating them from excellencism. Method. In two studies (N = 284; N = 396), participants completed the Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism and various measures of social disconnection. Results. In Study 1, perfectionism was positively related to loneliness, sacrificing social relationships, perfectionistic self-presentation, and less optimal social adjustment goals. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings, showing perfectionism was positively associated with loneliness and frustration of the need for relatedness. In contrast, excellencism was associated with lower loneliness and higher satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Discussion. The results show the importance of distinguishing between perfectionism and excellencism in unpacking the theoretically expected association between perfectionistic standards and psychological and social adjustment in the Social Disconnection Model. Overall, our findings provide novel insights into how perfectionism and excellencism are differentially linked to psychological experiences of social disconnection.

Research regarding self-compassion as a valuable resource for women athletes is increasing at an impressive rate. However, given that self-compassion is not part of most athletes' everyday language, the best language to use when talking about self-compassion with women athletes remains unclear. Some women athletes are hesitant to embrace self-compassion because they perceive it as passive or counter to their improvement motivation. Identifying language that resonates with women athletes is valuable to ensure a clear connection when discussing self-compassion. The purpose of this qualitative description study was to explore women athletes' language describing self-compassion. Competitive women athletes (N = 19; Mage = 22.6 years, SD = 5.4) living in a Western Canadian province were invited to participate in two phases of focus groups, allowing participants to engage in the topic and offer perspective and interpretation over multiple phases of data generation. Data were prepared, organized, and reported into content-specific themes following Elo and Kyng & auml;s's (2008) content analysis. Three themes were generated-(a) show up: self-focused support through self-empowerment, (b) regroup: checking in and setting realistic expectations, and (c) trust: trusting myself and the process. The language used by participants to describe self-compassion incorporates elements of both tender (i.e., comforting reassurance) and fierce (i.e., protecting and providing) forms of self-compassion. Findings provide relevant and useful information for researchers, applied practitioners, and sport personnel seeking to communicate with women athletes about self-compassion.

The model of excellencism and perfectionism proposes that the effects of pursuing perfection (i.e., perfectionism) need to be assessed while controlling for the effects of pursuing excellence (i.e., excellencism). Our objective in this research was to rely on the model of excellencism and perfectionism to further our understanding of athlete perfectionism on two key points. First, we focused on a scale designed to measure dispositional perfectionism and excellencism-the Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism (SCOPE)-and tested the factor structure of an adapted version of the SCOPE for athletes (SCOPE-A). Second, we addressed the substantive question of whether perfectionism, while controlling for excellencism, is beneficial, unneeded, or harmful for athlete well-being and performance satisfaction-two indicators of athlete thriving. We conducted secondary data analysis with four samples of athletes (total N = 1,549). The results of confirmatory factor analyses and multiple regression analyses provided evidence to support the factor structure of scores from the SCOPE-A, and the conclusion that, when it comes to athlete thriving, perfectionism is almost always unneeded and excellencism is almost always good enough. These results shed new light on the connection between excellencism, perfectionism, and athlete thriving, and contribute to future research examining the effects of excellencism and perfectionism in athletes using the SCOPE-A.

How do perfection strivers react when they witness a perfect sport performance? In two studies, we show that perfectionism is associated with a lower likelihood of providing perfect performance ratings when there is ambiguity about whether a performance is indeed perfect. In Study 1, 312 baseball fans watched the final plays from an infamous baseball game from 2010 in which a pitcher delivered what is known as a “perfect game”; however, due to an officiating error at the end of the game, the game was not officially considered to be “perfect”. In Study 2, a separate sample of 439 baseball fans participated in an experimental study in which they read scenarios depicting a perfect game in baseball. However, some participants were randomly assigned to learn that, due to an officiating error, the pitcher’s performance could not be considered “perfect”. In both studies, we observed a negative association between perfectionism and the likelihood of rating the pitcher’s performance perfectly when there was ambiguity about the perfectness of the game. These results speak to the mindset that is theorized to characterize perfectionists and demonstrate the hypersensitivity of perfectionists to signs of imperfection, even within perfect performances.

Context: Athletes who do not follow proper concussion recovery protocols are likely to experience their symptoms for longer while putting themselves at risk of further health issues. It is, therefore, critical to identify the types of athletes who may be more or less likely to follow the guidance of medical professionals following concussions. In this research, we tested the hypothesis that athletes with higher levels of self-compassion would be more willing to follow concussion recovery protocols. Design: Cross-sectional study. Methods: We collected data from 2 samples of combat sport athletes (sample 1, N = 173 and sample 2, N = 172). All participants completed online surveys assessing self-compassion, the likelihood that they would follow 10 recovery recommendations if they were to experience a concussion in their sport, and scales assessing 3 covariates: self-esteem, conscientiousness, and sport competitiveness. Results: After controlling for self-esteem, conscientiousness, and sport competitiveness, the results of multiple regression analyses in both samples showed that self-compassion was positively associated with willingness to follow concussion recovery recommendations (sample 1: β = 0.19, 1-tailed P = .039; sample 2: β = 0.20, 1-tailed P = .025). The results of a mini meta-analysis of these effects supported this positive association, Mean r = .144, Z = 2.666, 1-tailed P = .004. Conclusions: Athletes who are highly self-compassionate reported a greater willingness to follow the advice of medical professionals and adhere to return-to-play protocol. This finding has implications for the rehabilitation of sport concussions; it may be advantageous to encourage athletes to be kind and compassionate toward themselves throughout the concussion recovery process.

Athletes and coaches often feel a great deal of passion for sport. But are these highly passionate individuals also highly engaged in sport? Based on the theoretical underpinnings and empirical findings from the dualistic model of passion (Vallerand, 2015), it is unclear if the highest levels of sport engagement are associated with high levels of passion, or with specific combinations of high/low levels of harmonious and obsessive passion. We examined this issue in samples of athletes (N = 403) and coaches (N = 208). Participants completed online questionnaires assessing dimensions of sport passion (i.e., harmonious and obsessive passion) and engagement (i.e., confidence, vigor, dedication, enthusiasm). In both samples, we found that the highest levels of engagement were associated with high harmonious passion. This means that those who are passionate toward sport are not necessarily engaged in sport; engagement is found when passion involves high harmonious passion.

The Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism (MEP) differentiates striving toward high and realistic standards from striving for perfectionistic standards. Two studies situated excellencism and perfectionism within the nomological network of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM). Study 1 (n=284) showed that excellencism and perfectionism were distinctively associated with loneliness, social goals, self-presentation strategies, and sacrificing social and community goals. Study 2 (n=396) replicated the associations with loneliness and showed higher frustration of the need for relatedness in perfection strivers than in excellence strivers. The results emphasized the importance of distinguishing between perfectionism and excellencism to understand their unique roles in psychological and social adjustment, with perfectionism leading to social disconnection and excellencism promoting healthier relationships.

The Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism (MEP) proposes that the effects of pursuing perfection (i.e., perfectionism) need to be assessed beyond the effects of pursuing excellence (i.e., excellencism). Our objective in this research was to rely on the MEP to further our understanding of athlete perfectionism on two key points. First, we focussed on a scale designed to measure dispositional perfectionism and excellencism – the Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism (SCOPE) – and tested the factor structure of an adapted version of the SCOPE for athletes (SCOPE-A). Second, we addressed the substantive question of whether perfectionism, beyond excellencism, is beneficial, unneeded, or harmful for athletes’ thriving (i.e., experiencing high levels of well-being and performance satisfaction). We analyzed data collected across four samples of athletes (total N = 1,549). The results of confirmatory factor analyses and multiple regression analyses provided evidence to support the factor structure of scores from the SCOPE-A, and the conclusion that, when it comes to athlete thriving, perfectionism is almost always unneeded and excellencism is almost always good enough. These results shed new light on the connection between excellencism, perfectionism, and athlete thriving, and contribute to future research examining the effects of excellencism and perfectionism in athletes using the SCOPE-A.

People often feel passionate toward activities in sport. But passion can change, and we know very little about how or when passion for sport changes over time. Here we present a hypothesis about how, when, and why passion changes over time – the seasonal attenuation of passion (SAP) hypothesis – which predicts that levels of passion toward activities will tend to decline over the course of a season in sport. We tested this hypothesis in three studies with intercollegiate volleyball players (N = 421), intercollegiate athletes from various sports (N = 298), and fans of the Winnipeg Jets (N = 418). In each study, participants reported levels of passion (i.e., harmonious passion, obsessive passion, general passion) at either the start and end of a season (Study 1) or at the start, middle, and end of a season (Studies 2 and 3). Using latent change score modeling (Study 1) and latent growth modeling (Studies 2 and 3), we found that all scores of passion decreased over the course of each season. This has implications for our understanding of how passion changes over time, especially in sporting activities which are often organized in recurring seasons; there appears to be a tendency for a season to sap people’s passion over time.

Past studies have found an unexpectedly small and inconsistent association between perfectionistic standards and test anxiety. Our goal was to unpack this association through the lens of a novel theory: The Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism. Results of Study 1 (N= 273) showed higher test anxiety, fear of failure, and mistake rumination for perfection strivers compared to excellence strivers. Results of Study 2 (N= 248) replicated these findings. Also, they showed that perfection strivers are more likely than excellence strivers to catastrophize about small mistakes, use reassurance seeking safety behaviors, and underperform in their exams. Excellencism and perfectionism are related but different pursuits, and their differentiation is essential to unveil the unhealthy role of perfectionistic standards in the nomological network of test anxiety. Our findings realign empirical knowledge with theories and interventions and enhance the impetus to intervene on the perfectionistic standards of students in schools.

We tested if distinct combinations of harmonious passion and obsessive passion for sport were associated with outcomes within sport, academics, and in one’s life. We analyzed data from the Student-athlete Well-being and Achievement Project (SWAP), a study in which intercollegiate student-athletes (N = 298) completed assessments of harmonious and obsessive passion at the start of a season, and assessments of performance, experiences, and satisfaction in sport, academics, and in life at the end of a season. Results showed that high harmonious passion combined with low obsessive passion (i.e., pure harmonious passion) was most often associated with the most adaptive outcomes, whereas high obsessive passion combined with low harmonious passion (i.e., pure obsessive passion) was associated with the least adaptive outcomes. These results build on previous research with recreational athletes (Schellenberg et al., 2021) by showing the benefits of pursuing competitive sport with high harmonious passion, especially pure harmonious passion.

The Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism has been proposed to differentiate the pursuit of high but realistic standards (excellencism) from the pursuit of perfectionistic standards. In a recent study, perfectionistic standards were positively linked to bottom-line mentality, moral disengagement, and tolerance toward electronic sign stealing (cheating) in professional baseball. In this follow-up study, we investigated the reactions of sports fans when the Houston Astros qualified for the 2021 World Series of Baseball 2 years after being found guilty of cheating. We found that fans of the Astros (n = 202) displayed a higher tolerance toward cheating than those of the Atlanta Braves (n = 265). Results of multiple regression (controlling for in-group vs. out-group status) showed higher tolerance toward cheating and doping in perfection strivers compared with excellence strivers. A winning-at-all-cost mentality and moral disengagement mediated the relationships between perfectionism and cheating attitudes.