This paper aims to describe, contextualize and critically analyze the historical origin and background, circumstances, structure and logic that underpin Kodokan judo’s gokyo-no-waza and classification of throws outside of the gokyo. To do so, we have applied historical methods and source criticism allowing us to uncover hitherto unknown facts and to offer a critical analysis of the gokyo’s foundations and previously published hypotheses. With kata prior to the creation of the gokyo being the only crutch that Kano’s assistants could lean on when having to teach the Kodokan’s exponentially growing number of judo students, there was a dire need for a didactically organized teaching plan of technical progression. It is to that end that in 1895 some of Kano’s most senior students and himself came up with the gokyo-no-waza or “techniques of the five teachings” as their standard syllabus of throwing techniques. Today referred to as the kyu gokyo-no-waza, this first syllabus consisted of 42 techniques. In response to the evolution of judo, a revised syllabus, the shin gokyo-no-waza consisting of 40 techniques was launched in 1920 based on the input of six of Kano’s leading students. The techniques within the gokyo are organized foremost with attention to being easy for breakfalling. Between 1982 and 2017, the Kodokan expanded their syllabus to 68 throws by creating two categories of techniques outside of the gokyo, i.e. the habukareta-waza and the shinmeisho-no-waza. In this paper we propose to add a new category of 25 historically documented judo throws, which we have named the jidai-okure-no-waza [obsolete techniques] hence bringing the total recognized judo throws to 93.

Judo national governing bodies in recent years through slogans, posters, cartoons, and web site information have attempted to reignite their members’ appreciation for a judo morality constructed on Japanese bushido. Similarly, several judo federations actively promote ‘shin-gi-tai’ (mind-technique-body) as a guiding principle for rank promotions and conduct allegedly in association with Kano Jigoro’s philosophy. Using translation, critical and heuristic analysis of relevant original historical Japanese sources, it is the purpose of this paper to investigate the origin, etymology and justification of shin-gi-tai as a pre-existing principle in Kodokan judo. Our results show that shin-gi-tai was first used in judo by Michigami Haku while teaching in Shanghai in the 1940s. After his arrival in France in 1953, the concept was introduced and distributed within the Western judo world. However, Michigami was not the original author. It was on the island of Kyushu, from where Michigami hailed, that the term shin-gi-tai appears to have been first used in the Heiho shingitai oboegaki (Memorandum on military arts and mind-technique-body), a text authored by Toyoda Masanaga, an 18th century Niten ichi-ryu heiho swordsman influenced by Miyamoto Musashi. A similar term, shinkitai, later entered sumo through the Yoshida family, also active in Kyushu, who became responsible for the administration of sumo in the late Meiji period. Michigami as a young man had practiced both kendo and sumo. There is no link between Kano Jigoro and shin-gi-tai. While it is acceptable to use shin-gi-tai or any other legitimate meme in coaching athletes, asserting that it represents a fundamental principle that guides rank promotions and ethics in judo is nothing but historical reinvention that lacks any basis.

Background. Randori (free practice combat exercise) and kata (formal codified practice exercise) are complementary in learning judo. Traditionally taught by imitation (relationship between sensei and senpai/kohai; SHU phase of the SHU-HA-RI method) and after randori, kata are often perceived as an obstacle for promotion to a higher rank Active teaching methods may help us in changing this perception. Aim. A personal expression or personal free practice of concepts of kata may precede formal expression or formal codified practice in learning kata. Methods. From 2011 to 2018, the personal expression based on the concepts of gonosen-no-kata (kata of counterattacks) was analyzed in 38 bachelor-level students at the University of Montpellier (France). Subjects mastered the nage-no-kata (mandatory for 1st dan black belt), but were not knowledgeable in the gonosen-no-kata (mandatory for 4th dan black belt). During 4 hours of class, they had to perform freely all or part of 4 series: 3 different counterattacks after 3 different attacks, 1 identical counterattack after 3 different attacks, 3 different counterattacks after 1 identical attack, and 3 free counterattacks after 3 free attacks.Results. Subjects performed 95 series containing 282 attacks/ counterattacks: 231 attacks and 47 counterattacks corresponded to those codified in the gonosen-no-kata, reflecting the students' insights. Techniques banned in competition by the International Judo Federation in 2011 were not used by the students. No significant differences were found between women and men in choices of defense used for dodging and sen-no-sen, and in techniques used for counter attacking. Men and women did, however, significantly differ in blocking attacks. Conclusions. - Active teaching methods for learning gonosen-no-kata are valuable and might be expanded; - Students are creative in choosing techniques; - Personal expression may precede formal expression in learning kata. There may be unexpected challenges for French judo technical staff in developing methods to include gonosen-no-kata in warm-up and techniques.

The purpose of the present paper is to provide a critical update to previously published findings about the historical background of gonosen-no-kata (“Forms of Post-Attack Initiative Counter Throws”), a non-officially accepted kata of Kodokan judo that achieved some popularity in select European countries. We applied historical methods and source criticism to newly acquired evidence in this way offering a careful critical analysis of this kata’s origin, history and background. Expanding our earlier finding, i.e. the kata’s first verifiable European appearance in London, 1926, from 1927 onward it was spread throughout Europe by a number of judo teachers of Japanese origin. However, the results of this paper now also lead us to firmly refute the caution we had expressed earlier that gonosen-no-kata might well not be of Japanese origin. Indeed, the kata shows up for the first time in November 1915 when it is on display as part of the program surrounding the 20th Waseda University Judo Tournament in Tokyo where it was shown by a pair of judoka, named Nagae and Endo. From then on, the kata was regularly publically demonstrated in Japan at judo contests during the Taisho era (1912-1926) whenever a team from Waseda University participated. Among its most significant early proponents in Japan were Waseda students Endo Moriya, Ninomiya Sotaro, and Yasuoka Toraki. Waseda University’s former chief-instructors Miyakawa Ikkan (1885-1944) and Takahashi Kazuyoshi (1885-1942), and dedicated student(s), such as Endo Moriya (1896-1950) remain the most likely candidates involved in the creation and development of gonosen-no-kata.

A 6-year-old Caucasian girl with approximately 1 year of recreational jūdō experience presented with neck and shoulder pain while holding her head in a 'Cock-robin' sideways tilted position. During a children's jūdō class while seated on 'all fours' she had been subjected to an improperly executed turnover performed by a boy of similar age, body mass and experience. Because of increasing torticollis symptoms after class she was taken by her parents to a local hospital's emergency department where X-rays showed a mid-clavicular fracture. It was not until 7 weeks post-accident that a CT scan was ordered and a type-III traumatic acute AARS causing her clinical symptoms was recognized.

Inoue Shoji (1927-2018) was born in Tokushimaprefecture, Japan. As a youngster he took up judo. Later, he studied Kito-ryu jujutsu for some time with Odaka Shigeru. During his professional career as a prison guard he followed up on an offer to become a judo therapist. In a dojo in the Yamashina-ku ward in Kyoto he taught both judo and a limited catalogue of Kito-ryu that included exercises that were adopted into Kodokan judo under the name koshiki-no-kata [The Antique Forms]. With Kodokan judo continuing to deteriorate into an ordinary sport and losing its core values and purpose, Inoue increasingly appreciated the traditional martial arts values preserved in Kito-ryu jujutsu. His enthusiasm was reflected in beginning to give public demonstrations at various events in Japan and becoming a representative of Kito-ryu in the Nihon Kobudo Kyokai. Inoue’s supreme moment of glory likely was his public demonstration in 2013 at the occasion of the Fifth International Judo Federation (IJF) World Kata Judo Championships held in Kyoto. It was this performance that introduced him to the international judo community and brought him certain fame. For most foreign judoka this was their first contact with Kito-ryu. Irrespective of the quality of Inoue’s display, his approach offered a counterweight against the Kodokan’s historic reinvention and the IJF sports kata caricature. Several video clips publicly available on YouTube remain as a lasting memory of his art. Inoue Shoji held the rank of Kodokan 8th dan, and peacefully died in Kyoto on October 30th, 2018.

David B. Waterhouse (1936-2017) was a Professor emeritus, Japanese studies scholar, and humanities polymath. Educated to concert pianist level, he graduated in Western Classics, Moral Sciences, and Oriental Studies from the University of Cambridge. It is there where during his freshman year he had attended for first time a live judo demonstration, and had decided to start his judo career. Professor Waterhouse would eventually join the University of Toronto, where he would spend the rest of his professional career as an educator and scholar. David aptly understood and taught judo as it was meant by its founder, i.e. as a form of pedagogy striving for both physical and intellectual development. Consequently, his academic judo classes at the University of Toronto’s Department of East Asian Studies attracted an enthusiastic crowd of students. Professor Waterhouse’s scholarly legacy is vast, showing a remarkable breadth in topics which he surveyed, investigated and mastered, but he was particularly proud of his magnum opus, i.e. a two-volume catalogue of woodcuts by Japanese artist Suzuki Harunobu published in 2013. The manuscript of his book on judo’s cultural and technical history, unfortunately, remains unfinished due to his untimely passing.

In contrast with the vast amount of literature on rapid reduction of body mass in male wrestlers there is a particular lack of studies on the effects of “weight cutting” in female athletes who compete in weight class events such as jūdō. The advantages of competing in a lower weight category include increased leverage, relative power, and strength. A competitively active jūdōka attempts to build a longterm career in a single weight class to avoid having to overhaul tactical preparations due to having to face many new opponents. The most influential person on the jūdōka’s weight management behavior appears to be their jūdō coach and training partners. Significant gender differences in the type or magnitude of physiological effects of “weight cutting” are caused by female jūdōka typically relying on different methods (chiefly nutritional restriction and dehydration) when compared to their male counterparts (mostly increased energy expenditure and excessive exercise). Elite jūdōka engage in these unhealthy practices at an increasingly young age (<15 yrs) and are not commonly submitted to any preventive assessment of menstrual function, bone health, and markers of muscle and bone breakdown hence their high frequency and sustained history of musculo-tendinous injuries. While the effects of weight cutting on relative aerobic, anaerobic capacity and strength are limited, it is mainly dehydration, loss of muscle, tendon elasticity, catabolism, and premature osteopenia that contribute to their overall increased risk of injury. Protein and amino acid supplementation may be useful in avoiding severe catabolism and may potentiate lipolysis.

Introduction Rubens-Duval et al. in 1960 reported finding a high prevalence of back problems in black-belt-level senior jūdōka. Since then many more authors have found evidence in support of long-time jūdō practice being associated with degenerative vertebral changes. The present paper introduces and discusses a recent case of a sacral stress fracture in a jūdōka. Case presentation A 27-year-old Caucasian male jūdō black belt presented with lower-back pain. The subject was competitively active at the non-elite level in the middleweight category (-81 kg). Flexion-abduction-external-rotation (FABER), Gaenslen’s, and Scour test were all positive, but squish test was not. Clinical and MRI findings were consistent with a stress fracture of the right hemi-sacrum “Denis zone-I”. Differential diagnosis Nonspecific low-back pain, sacral joint dysfunction, ligamentous or muscular strains, Scheuermann’s Disease, sciatica, spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, tendinitis, Paget’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome, primary bone cancer, and spinal metastases. Treatment Reduction of sports competitive activities and training load temporarily improved symptoms. When deemed appropriate and training intensity was increased the pain quickly returned. Physical therapy produced no significant improvement in symptoms. Uniqueness of the study Sacral stress fractures have not previously been described in association with jūdō practice. Conclusion Sacral stress fractures should be considered when jūdōka present with lingering lower-back pain. Prompt and correct diagnosis is crucial to adapt the subject’s training regime and ensure proper healing. Currently, there is no established best treatment for sacral stress fractures. Whilst prolonged bed rest is generally effective, it is considered a poor option for athletes, especially for those involved in weight class events. Noninvasive treatment options include pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF), low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPU), and especially, extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), but large-scale randomized clinical studies validating their therapeutic effectiveness are still lacking.

Background and Study Aim: The purpose of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of katame-waza ura-no-kata [“Forms of Reversing Throwing Techniques”], a non-officially accepted kata of Kōdōkan jūdō made famous by the late Mifune Kyūzō, of which the date of creation has not been previously established, nor under what circumstances it was created or what its sources of inspiration were. Material and Methods: To achieve this, we offer a careful critical analysis of the available literature and rare source material on this kata. Results: Katame-waza ura-no-kata was finalized by Itō Kazuo (1898-1974) in June 1970 mainly based on techniques Itō had learned from his teacher Mifune Kyūzō. Mifune, in turn, drew his inspiration of the nige-waza [escaping techniques] and kaeshi-waza [countering] included in the kata likely from intellectual ideas of Takahashi Kazuyoshi and newaza [ground fighting] techniques perfected primarily by Oda Jōin, Mifune himself and to a lesser extent possibly by Toku Sanbō, Kawakami Chū, and others. Katame-waza ura-no-kata adheres to the same structure as katame-no-kata hence is divided in three series of five techniques each followed up by a counter-control technique. Katame-waza ura-no-kata is a randori-no-kata form. The objective of the kata is not to copy a supposed gold standard performance that then needs to be evaluated and scored by a jury, but to develop the ability of performing jūdō at the supra-mechanical level of myōwaza [unexplainable sophisticated technique], irrespective of differences in minute technical details. Conclusions: Katame-waza ura-no-kata is an exercise devised by the late jūdō master Itō Kazuo, which similarly to how katame-no-kata complements nage-no-kata, serves as a complement to nage-waza ura-no-kata. It is a valuable training exercise of which the practice is intended to contribute to developing the highest levels of jūdō technical ability. Sadly, the kata remains largely unfamiliar to most jūdōka due to a lack of qualified instructors and its current status as a non-officially accepted Kōdōkan kata.

Background & Study Aim: The purpose of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of nage-waza ura-no-kata [“Forms of Reversing Throwing Techniques”], a non-officially accepted kata of Kōdōkan jūdō made famous by the late Mifune Kyūzō (1883-1965), of which the date of creation has not been previously established, nor under what circumstances it was created or what its sources of inspiration were. Material & Methods: To achieve this, we offer a careful critical analysis of the available literature and rare source material on this kata. Results: In 1903 Mifune entered the Kōdōkan and in 1904 he attended Waseda University’s Preparatory School for a year. The inspiration for Nage-waza ura-no-kata may be traced back to Waseda University, where Takahashi Kazuyoshi was Mifune’s contemporary. While Mifune, in combination with an intensive competitive career, also spent time researching new individual throwing techniques, it is Takahashi’s research that focused on the concept of ura-waza or reverse-throws. On Kanō’s invitation Takahashi authored many articles on this topic which appeared in Yūkō-no-Katsudō, the Kōdōkan’s official magazine. It is likely that drawing from Takahashi’s and his own research Mifune completed his nage-waza ura-no-kata probably around 1934-1938. The objective of the kata is not to copy a supposed gold standard performance that then needs to be evaluated and scored by a jury, but to develop the ability of performing jūdō at the supra-mechanical level of myōwaza [unexplainable sophisticated technique], irrespective of differences in minute technical details. Conclusions: Nage-waza ura-no-kata is an exercise devised by expert-technician Mifune Kyūzō which similarly to katameno-kata complements nage-no-kata and of which the practice is intended to contribute to developing the highest levels of jūdō technical ability.

The sport of jūdō was intended as an activity “for all”. Since in 1996 a major sex abuse scandal broke out that involved a Dutch top jūdō coach and several female elite athletes, international media have identified many more abuses. To date no scholarly studies exist that have examined the nature, extent, and consequences of these anomalies. We intend in this paper to review and analyze sexual abuses in jūdō. To do so we offer a descriptive jurisprudence overview of relevant court and disciplinary cases, followed by a qualitative-analytical approach looking at the potential factors that prompt jūdō-related bullying and sexual harassment. Sex offenders may be attracted to jūdō because of: 1. the extensive bodily contact during grappling, 2. the easy access to voyeuristic opportunities during contest weigh-ins and showering, 3. Jūdō’s authoritarian and hierarchical structure as basis for ‘grooming’, 4. lack of integration of jūdō’s core moral component in contemporary jūdō coach and instructor education, and 5. its increasing eroticization by elite jūdō athletes posing for nude calendars and media and by specialized pornographic jūdō manga and movies. Cultural conceptions and jurisprudence are factors that affect how people perceive the seriousness and how these offences are dealt with. A survey of 19 cases of abuse in jūdō worldwide shows that cultural conceptions and jurisprudence cause that such cases are handled in a very heterogeneous way by the law and by the jūdō governing bodies. Jūdō clubs and organizations overall suffer from a lack of expertise, intellectual insight, ethical objectivity, and solid procedures of fairness for both victim and accused, in this way often failing in both sufficiently protecting the weak from sex offenders, and in educating and reintegrating past offenders through jūdō activities that do not involve their victim target groups. Jūdō’s moral philosophy implicitly attempts to offer a utilitarian answer as to how the jūdō community should deal with serious offences. These incidents, however, continue to show the limitations of jūdō‘s utopian “prosperity for all” objective. Key words: child abuse, criminals, judo, jurisprudence, legal cases, martial arts, sexual har-assment, sexual offenses.

Background and Study Aim: The purpose of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive study of gonosen-no-kata [“Forms of Post-Attack Initiative Counter Throws”], a non-officially accepted kata of Kōdōkan jūdō made popular in Western Europe by Kawaishi Mikinosuke (1899-1969). Material and Methods: To achieve this we apply historical methods and source criticism to offer a careful critical analysis of the origin, history and background of this kata. Results: The first verifiable appearance of gonosen-no-kata is in 1926 at the occasion of the London Budōkwai’s 9th Annual Display, where it was publicly demonstrated by Ishiguro Keishichi (1897-1974), previously at Waseda University and since 1924 living in Paris. The kata builds on intellectual material conceived by Takahashi Kazuyoshi. A 1932 program brochure of an Oxford University Judo Club event is the oldest known source to link Kawaishi and gonosen-no-kata. Kawaishi considered gonosen-no-kata as the third randori-no-kata. Kawaishi’s major role in spreading jūdō in France and continental Europe between 1935 and 1965, and the publication of his seminal jūdō kata book in 1956, connected his name to this kata forever. Conclusions: In the absence of any Kōdōkan standard the evolution of the kata over the past 75 years has led to substantial variations in the mechanics and approach specific to each country and jūdō federation that endorse its practice. It remains questionable whether gonosen-no-kata historically has ever been practiced in Japan anywhere, and whether this ‘kata’ is any-thing more than a merely opportunistic name given to a one-time unstructured exercise firstly demonstrated in London during the 1920s.

Background & Study Aim: The purpose of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of nage-waza ura-no-kata ["Forms of Reversing Throwing Techniques"], a non-officially accepted kata of Kodokan judo made famous by the late Mifune Kyuzo (1883-1965), of which the date of creation has not been previously established, nor under what circumstances it was created or what its sources of inspiration were.Material & Methods: To achieve this, we offer a careful critical analysis of the available literature and rare source material on this kata.Results: In 1903 Mifune entered the Kodokan and in 1904 he attended Waseda University's Preparatory School for a year. The inspiration for Nage-waza ura-no-kata may be traced back to Waseda University, where Takahashi Kazuyoshi was Mifune's contemporary. While Mifune, in combination with an intensive competitive career, also spent time researching new individual throwing techniques, it is Takahashi's research that focused on the concept of ura-waza or reverse-throws. On Kano's invitation Takahashi authored many articles on this topic which appeared in Yuko-no-Katsudo, the Kodokan's official magazine. It is likely that drawing from Takahashi's and his own research Mifune completed his nage-waza ura-no-kata probably around 1934-1938. The objective of the kata is not to copy a supposed gold standard performance that then needs to be evaluated and scored by a jury, but to develop the ability of performing judo at the supra-mechanical level of myowaza [unexplainable sophisticated technique], irrespective of differences in minute technical details.Conclusions: Nage-waza ura-no-kata is an exercise devised by expert-technician Mifune Kyuzo which similarly to katame-no-kata complements nage-no-kata and of which the practice is intended to contribute to developing the highest levels of judo technical ability.