Worldwide there have been over 760 million confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases, and over 13 billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered as of April 2023, according to the World Health Organization. An infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can lead to an acute disease, i.e. COVID-19, but also to a post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS, "long COVID"). Currently, the side effects of COVID-19 vaccines are increasingly being noted and studied. Here, we summarise the currently available indications and discuss our conclusions that (i) these side effects have specific similarities and differences to acute COVID-19 and PACS, that (ii) a new term should be used to refer to these side effects (post-COVID19 vaccination syndrome, PCVS, colloquially "post-COVIDvac-syndrome"), and that (iii) there is a need to distinguish between acute COVID-19 vaccination syndrome (ACVS) and post-acute COVID-19 vaccination syndrome (PACVS) - in analogy to acute COVID-19 and PACS ("long COVID"). Moreover, we address mixed forms of disease caused by natural SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination. We explain why it is important for medical diagnosis, care and research to use the new terms (PCVS, ACVS and PACVS) in order to avoid confusion and misinterpretation of the underlying causes of disease and to enable optimal medical therapy. We do not recommend to use the term "Post-Vac-Syndrome" as it is imprecise. The article also serves to address the current problem of "medical gaslighting" in relation to PACS and PCVS by raising awareness among the medical professionals and supplying appropriate terminology for disease.

ObjectiveAlthough dermal smooth muscles (DSM) are mentioned in the female genital region,1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar,2Baramee P. Muro S. Suriyut J. Harada M. Akita K. Three muscle slings of the pelvic floor in women: an anatomic study.Anat Sci Int. 2020; 95: 47-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar no systematic analysis and description of these muscles is published to date to the best of our knowledge.Study DesignThe appearance of the DSM was studied in 7 human female cadavers (age range between 64–98 years and no pathologic conditions affecting this region) using 10 μm thick serial sections (at least 10 equally distributed cross-sectional areas from the pubic region toward the perineal body) of paraffin-embedded tissue samples (hematoxylin and eosin staining) and antibodies against smooth muscle alpha actin (dilution 1:150; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) and against neurofilaments (dilution 1:1000, clone 2F11; Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) to observe the general innervation pattern, against tyrosine hydroxylase (dilution 1:200; Biological Divisions, Rogers, P40101-0) to investigate sympathetic innervation, and against connexin 43 (dilution 1:200; Sigma-Aldrich) to proof intercell-connection.ResultsIn all the female specimens, DSM were present in and restricted to the labia majora (Figure) . The DSM bundles were located within the vein-rich dermis (distance of the DSM bundles toward the epidermis between 200–600 μm) and formed a 0.6 mm to –2.5 mm thick layer, always interwoven with loosely connective tissue without fat cells. The ventral border showed only single smooth muscle bundles extending into the pubic region. They remained strictly on each side and showed no communication. There were no DSM within the labia minora or toward the clitoris. A thick layer of fatty connective tissue separated the DSM from the striated genital muscles and the vestibular bulbs. Toward the dorsal border, the DSM oriented medially but showed no clear communication with the deeper smooth muscle bundles in the subcutis of the perineal body. These deeper smooth muscles (distance of 3.6–4.0 mm toward the epidermis) were connected to the striated muscles of the perineal body. Virtually all DSM bundles showed a ventral-dorsal orientation.The staining of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerve fibers was sparse and similar with the neurofilament antibody, suggesting a mainly sympathetic innervation. Only rarely, connexin 43 was present between the smooth muscle cells.ConclusionIs the DSM just a vestigial homologue to the male dartos muscle? Because its presence has been mainly neglected, no direct answers exist. However, several hints point to distinct functions. From a physiological perspective, the described morphology of the DSM harmonizes with a functional experiment investigating the labial reaction after clitoris stimulation.3Shafik A. Shafik A.A. Ahmed I. Response of the labia majora and minora to clitoral stimulation.Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2004; 86: 401-402Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar In addition, the muscle might be of relevance for the clinical condition of vulvodynia (discussed as a syndrome similar to penoscrotodynia in males) because of its location within the hypervascularized dermis.4Markos A.R. Dinsmore W. Persistent genital arousal and restless genitalia: sexual dysfunction or subtype of vulvodynia?.Int J STD AIDS. 2013; 24: 852-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar It is certainly the origin for the rarely-appearing vulvar myoma.5Chang C.H. Li P.C. Hsu Y.H. Ding D.C. Vulvar myoma: a case report and review of literature.Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2021; 60: 924-926Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar Concerning reconstructive surgery, the DSM is included only in full-thickness cutaneous Martius flaps but might support the functional restitution of the vaginal wall.6Carr L.K. Webster G.D. Full-thickness cutaneous martius flaps: a useful technique in female reconstructive urology.Urology. 1996; 48: 461-463Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar However, the sparse innervation and gap junction connection points to a limited function of the muscle, at least in the elderly population studied. The connection of the DSM with the perineal body might point to a common embryologic origin together with other smooth muscle bundles in this region1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar; a possible functional linkage has to be further investigated. In conclusion, it might be helpful for research and clinics to be aware of this female dartos muscle equivalent and to acknowledge the special dermal situation of the labia majora. ObjectiveAlthough dermal smooth muscles (DSM) are mentioned in the female genital region,1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar,2Baramee P. Muro S. Suriyut J. Harada M. Akita K. Three muscle slings of the pelvic floor in women: an anatomic study.Anat Sci Int. 2020; 95: 47-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar no systematic analysis and description of these muscles is published to date to the best of our knowledge. Although dermal smooth muscles (DSM) are mentioned in the female genital region,1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar,2Baramee P. Muro S. Suriyut J. Harada M. Akita K. Three muscle slings of the pelvic floor in women: an anatomic study.Anat Sci Int. 2020; 95: 47-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar no systematic analysis and description of these muscles is published to date to the best of our knowledge. Study DesignThe appearance of the DSM was studied in 7 human female cadavers (age range between 64–98 years and no pathologic conditions affecting this region) using 10 μm thick serial sections (at least 10 equally distributed cross-sectional areas from the pubic region toward the perineal body) of paraffin-embedded tissue samples (hematoxylin and eosin staining) and antibodies against smooth muscle alpha actin (dilution 1:150; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) and against neurofilaments (dilution 1:1000, clone 2F11; Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) to observe the general innervation pattern, against tyrosine hydroxylase (dilution 1:200; Biological Divisions, Rogers, P40101-0) to investigate sympathetic innervation, and against connexin 43 (dilution 1:200; Sigma-Aldrich) to proof intercell-connection. The appearance of the DSM was studied in 7 human female cadavers (age range between 64–98 years and no pathologic conditions affecting this region) using 10 μm thick serial sections (at least 10 equally distributed cross-sectional areas from the pubic region toward the perineal body) of paraffin-embedded tissue samples (hematoxylin and eosin staining) and antibodies against smooth muscle alpha actin (dilution 1:150; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri) and against neurofilaments (dilution 1:1000, clone 2F11; Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) to observe the general innervation pattern, against tyrosine hydroxylase (dilution 1:200; Biological Divisions, Rogers, P40101-0) to investigate sympathetic innervation, and against connexin 43 (dilution 1:200; Sigma-Aldrich) to proof intercell-connection. ResultsIn all the female specimens, DSM were present in and restricted to the labia majora (Figure) . The DSM bundles were located within the vein-rich dermis (distance of the DSM bundles toward the epidermis between 200–600 μm) and formed a 0.6 mm to –2.5 mm thick layer, always interwoven with loosely connective tissue without fat cells. The ventral border showed only single smooth muscle bundles extending into the pubic region. They remained strictly on each side and showed no communication. There were no DSM within the labia minora or toward the clitoris. A thick layer of fatty connective tissue separated the DSM from the striated genital muscles and the vestibular bulbs. Toward the dorsal border, the DSM oriented medially but showed no clear communication with the deeper smooth muscle bundles in the subcutis of the perineal body. These deeper smooth muscles (distance of 3.6–4.0 mm toward the epidermis) were connected to the striated muscles of the perineal body. Virtually all DSM bundles showed a ventral-dorsal orientation.The staining of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerve fibers was sparse and similar with the neurofilament antibody, suggesting a mainly sympathetic innervation. Only rarely, connexin 43 was present between the smooth muscle cells. In all the female specimens, DSM were present in and restricted to the labia majora (Figure) . The DSM bundles were located within the vein-rich dermis (distance of the DSM bundles toward the epidermis between 200–600 μm) and formed a 0.6 mm to –2.5 mm thick layer, always interwoven with loosely connective tissue without fat cells. The ventral border showed only single smooth muscle bundles extending into the pubic region. They remained strictly on each side and showed no communication. There were no DSM within the labia minora or toward the clitoris. A thick layer of fatty connective tissue separated the DSM from the striated genital muscles and the vestibular bulbs. Toward the dorsal border, the DSM oriented medially but showed no clear communication with the deeper smooth muscle bundles in the subcutis of the perineal body. These deeper smooth muscles (distance of 3.6–4.0 mm toward the epidermis) were connected to the striated muscles of the perineal body. Virtually all DSM bundles showed a ventral-dorsal orientation. The staining of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerve fibers was sparse and similar with the neurofilament antibody, suggesting a mainly sympathetic innervation. Only rarely, connexin 43 was present between the smooth muscle cells. ConclusionIs the DSM just a vestigial homologue to the male dartos muscle? Because its presence has been mainly neglected, no direct answers exist. However, several hints point to distinct functions. From a physiological perspective, the described morphology of the DSM harmonizes with a functional experiment investigating the labial reaction after clitoris stimulation.3Shafik A. Shafik A.A. Ahmed I. Response of the labia majora and minora to clitoral stimulation.Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2004; 86: 401-402Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar In addition, the muscle might be of relevance for the clinical condition of vulvodynia (discussed as a syndrome similar to penoscrotodynia in males) because of its location within the hypervascularized dermis.4Markos A.R. Dinsmore W. Persistent genital arousal and restless genitalia: sexual dysfunction or subtype of vulvodynia?.Int J STD AIDS. 2013; 24: 852-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar It is certainly the origin for the rarely-appearing vulvar myoma.5Chang C.H. Li P.C. Hsu Y.H. Ding D.C. Vulvar myoma: a case report and review of literature.Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2021; 60: 924-926Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar Concerning reconstructive surgery, the DSM is included only in full-thickness cutaneous Martius flaps but might support the functional restitution of the vaginal wall.6Carr L.K. Webster G.D. Full-thickness cutaneous martius flaps: a useful technique in female reconstructive urology.Urology. 1996; 48: 461-463Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar However, the sparse innervation and gap junction connection points to a limited function of the muscle, at least in the elderly population studied. The connection of the DSM with the perineal body might point to a common embryologic origin together with other smooth muscle bundles in this region1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar; a possible functional linkage has to be further investigated. In conclusion, it might be helpful for research and clinics to be aware of this female dartos muscle equivalent and to acknowledge the special dermal situation of the labia majora. Is the DSM just a vestigial homologue to the male dartos muscle? Because its presence has been mainly neglected, no direct answers exist. However, several hints point to distinct functions. From a physiological perspective, the described morphology of the DSM harmonizes with a functional experiment investigating the labial reaction after clitoris stimulation.3Shafik A. Shafik A.A. Ahmed I. Response of the labia majora and minora to clitoral stimulation.Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2004; 86: 401-402Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar In addition, the muscle might be of relevance for the clinical condition of vulvodynia (discussed as a syndrome similar to penoscrotodynia in males) because of its location within the hypervascularized dermis.4Markos A.R. Dinsmore W. Persistent genital arousal and restless genitalia: sexual dysfunction or subtype of vulvodynia?.Int J STD AIDS. 2013; 24: 852-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar It is certainly the origin for the rarely-appearing vulvar myoma.5Chang C.H. Li P.C. Hsu Y.H. Ding D.C. Vulvar myoma: a case report and review of literature.Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2021; 60: 924-926Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar Concerning reconstructive surgery, the DSM is included only in full-thickness cutaneous Martius flaps but might support the functional restitution of the vaginal wall.6Carr L.K. Webster G.D. Full-thickness cutaneous martius flaps: a useful technique in female reconstructive urology.Urology. 1996; 48: 461-463Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar However, the sparse innervation and gap junction connection points to a limited function of the muscle, at least in the elderly population studied. The connection of the DSM with the perineal body might point to a common embryologic origin together with other smooth muscle bundles in this region1Kinugasa Y. Arakawa T. Abe H. Rodríguez-Vázquez J.F. Murakami G. Sugihara K. Female longitudinal anal muscles or conjoint longitudinal coats extend into the subcutaneous tissue along the vaginal vestibule: a histological study using human fetuses.Yonsei Med J. 2013; 54: 778-784Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar; a possible functional linkage has to be further investigated. In conclusion, it might be helpful for research and clinics to be aware of this female dartos muscle equivalent and to acknowledge the special dermal situation of the labia majora.

Background: Due to its clinical importance and due to a suggestion regarding the afferent innervation, the microscopic appearance of the frontalis muscle was investigated. Methods: From seven human cadavers, serial sections of the frontalis muscle were studied using light microscopy. Immunhistochemistry was performed using antibodies against collagen XXII and neurofilament. Results: The macroscopic appearance of the muscle was in accordance with the literature. At both insertion sides, the muscle fiber endings expressed collagen XXII, a marker for myotendinous junctions, although no tendons were present at the origin side. Neuromuscular junctions were seen in the middle part of the muscle belly (insertion of the nerve fibers of the facialis nerve) and in the cranial part toward the galea aponeurotica (possible afferent fibers?). Conclusions: This study summarizes the microscopic appearance of the frontalis muscle. It is a first example that collagen XXII can be expressed even without tendon formation. It confirms the absence of corpuscular afferent neuronal structures within the muscle.

The morphology of the more superficial tissue of the human tongue was investigated and discussed with the clinical appearance of fissures. Three regions could be distinguished according to the presence and shape of the aponeurosis linguae: the central region showed a thick aponeurotic plate with myotendinous muscle fibre insertions. The lateral region showed still an aponeurosis linguae but of reduced thickness and without muscle insertions. The edge-wise and lower region showed no aponeurosis linguae but a fatty subcutis and myocutaneous muscle fibre insertions lacking specific molecules of myotendinous junctions. This system of partially developed exoskeleton seems to underlie but not to be involved in tongue fissures, which are more superficial within the epidermis and dermis.

Although the presence of an arrector pili smooth muscle is documented in many monkey species, its regional peculiarities are hitherto not well documented. We aimed to study this aspect in the face of rhesus monkeys with different areas of hair coat. Eight different regions of six monkeys (male and female) were studied using light microscopy and immunohistochemistry (antibody against smooth muscle alpha actin). We identified two regions (lips and eyelids) with vellus hairs that did not show an arrector pili muscle. In the eyelids, the hairs are rather small and short; in the lips, the vellus hairs were surrounded by striated muscle fibers from the orbicularis oris muscle. In all other regions (frontal region, forehead, cheek, chin), the vellus hairs contained an arrector pili muscle with comparable morphology. Only in the chin region, where additional striated muscles from the face muscles were present, the arrector pili muscles were thinner. All vibrissae showed a close relation to striated muscle fiber bundles of the facial muscles. They never developed smooth muscle bundles assigned as arrector pili equivalent.

The platysma of the rhesus monkey consists of two parts: a platysma myoides located similar to the human platysma, and a platysma cervicale passing the dorsal cervical region and being in contact with the cheek pouch. Our investigation showed that the muscle fiber morphology was comparable in both parts. Muscle spindles were only present in regions connected to the cheek pouch and contained only nuclear chain fibers. It is tempting to speculate that they sense the filling of the cheek pouch rather than mimic activities.

To study optic nerve (ON) degeneration in the DBA/2NNia (DBA) mouse, a species lacking a lamina cribrosa and a model for secondary angle-closure glaucoma, serial semi- and ultra-thin sectioning of the myelinated ON and of the ON head was performed and sections evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively by light and electron microscopy. Immunohistochemistry was performed using antibodies against collagen type I, III, VI, laminin, and connexin43. The major finding on the myelinated ON was a significant decrease in cross section area during ON degeneration which was paralleled by a loss of axons and an increase in microglia. The number of astrocytes and blood vessels did not change. The major findings on the ON papilla were that ON heads with only mild degeneration showed a pronounced focal degeneration around the central retinal artery. In more severely degenerated ON, newly formed bundles of collagen type VI were located between astrocyte processes within the ON head. In a species that has no lamina cribrosa, DBA mice can develop typical signs of glaucomatous optic neuropathy. The entrance of the central retinal vessels into the ONH seems to be a preferentially vulnerable region for axon loss in this mouse model. In addition, astrocytes in the ON head form extracellular material similar to that found in human glaucomatous eyes.

Within the panniculus carnosus‐associated skeletal muscles in the human, the palmaris brevis and the platysma showed myotendinous/myofascial junctions with clear distance to the corium and the specific connection collagen type XXII. The orbicularis oris muscle, in contrast, contained bundles of striated muscle fibers reaching the corium at two distinct levels: the predominant inner ending was connected to the elastic network of the inner corium and the outer ending was within the more superficial collagen network. At both locations, the striated muscle fibers showed brush‐like cytoplasmic protrusions connecting a network which was not oriented toward the muscle fibers. Collagen type XXII was not present.

The palmaris brevis muscle contains numerous muscle spindles to control changes of the muscle length but is devoid of tendon-associated neuronal elements (e.g. Golgi tendon organs or Ruffini-like corpuscles) controlling changes in muscle strength. Pacinian bodies, frequently seen in the palm of the hand, show no direct association to the muscle bundles. The observed innervation pattern of the palmaris brevis muscle points to a specific type of neuronal regulation, present in skeletal muscles with no skeletal connection.

The horizontal raphe (HR) as a demarcation line dividing the retina and choroid into separate vascular hemispheres is well established, but its development has never been discussed in the context of new findings of the last decades. Although factors for axon guidance are established (e.g., slit-robo pathway, ephrin-protein-receptor pathway) they do not explain HR formation. Early morphological organization, too, fails to establish a HR. The development of the HR is most likely induced by the long posterior ciliary arteries which form a horizontal line prior to retinal organization. The maintenance might then be supported by several biochemical factors. The circulation separate superior and inferior vascular hemispheres communicates across the HR only through their anastomosing capillary beds resulting in watershed zones on either side of the HR. Visual field changes along the HR could clearly be demonstrated in vascular occlusive diseases affecting the optic nerve head, the retina or the choroid. The watershed zone of the HR is ideally protective for central visual acuity in vascular occlusive diseases but can lead to distinct pathological features.

The diffusion rate for proper nutrition of the inner retina depends mainly on four factors which are discussed in this review: 1. The diffusion distance between blood and retinal ganglion cells shows morphological variants in different mammalian species, namely a choroidal nutrition type, a retinal nutrition type, and a mixture of both types. 2. Low oxygen concentration levels in the inner retina force the diffusion of oxygen especially in the choroidal nutrition type. Other nutrients might be supplied by surrounding cells, mainly Müller cells. 3. Diffusion in the eye is influenced by the intraocular pressure, which is vital for the retinal ganglion cells but might also influence their proper function. Again, the nutrition types established might explain the differences in normal intraocular pressure levels among different species. 4. Temperature is a critical feature in the eye which has to be buffered to avoid neuronal damage. The most effective buffer system is the increased blood turnover in the choroid which has to be established in all species.

Variations in the hypothenar muscles influence the susceptibility of Guyon's canal and surgical procedures in this region. The hypothenar regions of both hands of 38 human donors were dissected and the single muscles identified. A semiquantitative evaluation included 19 donors. The opponens digiti minimi and the abductor digiti minimi were constantly present. The flexor digiti minimi showed various appearances: in 58% it formed one belly, in 21% two bellies, and in 21% it was missing. Rare unilateral supernumerary muscles (2.5% in this study) were associated to the abductor digiti minimi. The variation of the flexor digiti minimi and the possible appearance of additional muscles should be recognized for hypothenar region pathologies. Clin. Anat., 33:643–645, 2020. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

We present a unique description of bilateral tendon-like structures at the distal border of the transverse head of the adductor pollicis leading to a palpable strand in a 48-year-old female. Variations of the adductor pollicis are briefly reviewed.

The mimic muscles are usually described as containing no muscle spindles. In the present publication the human platysma was reinvestigated concerning its content of corpuscular sensors. Serial sections through the platysma of seven donors revealed numerous muscle spindles but no Pacini corpuscules. The muscle spindles were located in the cranial two‐thirds of the platysma, and were evenly distributed with a tendency to have more spindles in the lateral part of the muscle. Immunohistochemical staining with S46 antibodies revealed a predominance of nuclear bag fibers. The results point to an extended function of the platysma as an afferent center of the lower face mimic muscles.

NADPH diaphorase/neuronal nitric oxide synthase stained amacrine cells (NAC) are supposed to interact with the retinal vasculature.To study this hypothesis, the retinae of two different mouse strains and their controls were stained using the NADPH diaphorase technique labelling NAC and vessels.In the retina degeneration (rd) mouse, the total number of NAC in the first weeks during early retinal degeneration was slightly reduced.The number persisted in older animals and did not show the decrease described in normal mice.In the Norrie disease (nd) mouse, early vascular malformation lead to increased numbers of NAC.Although the progress of neural remodelling in the degenerated retina leads to a continuous loss of neurons in general, the NAC persist in higher numbers in parallel with a reduced vascular bed.

The pathogenesis of glaucoma is complex which has led to numerous hypothesizes concerning the important factors creating this specific type of inner retinal degeneration namely apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells. We favor a primary vascular etiology and provide evidence that the pathogenesis of glaucoma should not be confined to changes exclusively at the optic nerve head but must include changes occurring in the peripheral retina with particular emphasis on the watershed zones of both the retina and choroid. This focus may help to sharpen ones awareness for early glaucoma treatment particularly in patients with minimal findings suggestive of glaucoma.

Heidelberg Retinal Tomography data and fundus photographies. Corresponding data to Fig. 2a-d. (ZIP 27125Â kb)

The present review focusses on the morphological characteristics of the normal human ciliary muscle.It develops in the second and third trimenon during pregnancy but continues to change after birth with developing accommodation.The mature muscle forms three distinguishable portions which are connected but show individual characteristics.The outer portion origins and inserts with tendon-like structures, while the inner portion forms a sphincter-like appearance.The distinct different innervation is not yet completely described, nor exist portion-dependent summaries of the cytological characteristics.The specific intracellular, membraneous, and extracellular components described in the literature are listed and supplemented with own observations.