‘Sarawakian’ identity continues to be a topic of active discussion both within Malaysia and internationally. While these debates have brought Sarawakians into the spotlight, there is a pressing need for a deeper understanding of the complex nature of Sarawakian identity, which is often limited by narrow perspectives. This article seeks to expand our understanding of how Sarawakians define and perceive the terms Sarawakian and Sarawakian identity. To explore this, we surveyed 311 participants from diverse backgrounds within Sarawak and used thematic analysis to identify key interpretations of these terms. Our analysis revealed 13 distinct themes. Participants defined Sarawakian in relation to culture, diversity, and heritage, while Sarawakian identity was linked to cultural pride and a strong connection to the region. Importantly, our findings highlight the multifaceted role of Sarawakian identity, not only as a tool for self-classification but also as a crucial aspect of participants’ collective identity. These insights are especially relevant given the growing ‘Sarawak for Sarawakian’ sentiment, which is fueled by ongoing calls for greater autonomy. Our study contributes to a deeper understanding of Sarawakian identity, particularly in the context of recent political developments.

Aim/Purpose: The study investigated the views of Sarawak indigenous participants and other Sarawakians on whether Sarawak indigenous popular music can construct an indigenous and regional identity. The specific objectives of the study were to compare: (a) their level of familiarity with and knowledge about Sarawak indigenous popular music, (b) their attitudes towards Sarawak indigenous popular music, and (c) their practices in listening to Sarawak indigenous popular music. Introduction/Background: Most studies of Sarawak indigenous songs have focused on “Biar Bekikis Bulu Betis” and did not investigate the perceptions of indigenous and non-indigenous participants separately to understand whether indigenous pop songs can evoke a shared sense of belonging to Sarawak. As there is a lack of Sarawak-specific related research in Malaysia, the present study is timely and crucial in understanding whether the pop songs of an indigenous group can represent state identity due to living in a shared geographical space, Sarawak, with the indigenous groups. Methodology: The descriptive study involved 109 participants comprising 41.28% (or 45) Sarawak Indigenous and 58.72% (or 64) other Sarawakians. The term “Sarawakian” refers to Malaysian citizens born in Sarawak. The online questionnaire link was given to participants who fulfilled the selection criteria: (a) Malaysians who are Sarawakians but may be living elsewhere at some point in their lives; and (b) Participants who are aged 18 and above, so parental consent is not required for participating in the study, but there is no age limit. In this study, “Sarawak indigenous” refers to Iban, Bidayuh, Melanau, and Orang Ulu, while “Other Sarawakians” refers to Malay, Chinese, Indian, and others living in Sarawak. There were more female participants, and there was a spread of age groups. Most participants had lived in Sarawak for almost their whole lives, but some came back to live in Sarawak after having lived somewhere else. An 18-item questionnaire on knowledge, attitudes, and practices relating to Sarawak indigenous popular music was made, comprised of demographic information (five items), knowledge on Sarawak indigenous music (eight items), attitudes towards Sarawak indigenous music (three items), and practices relating to Sarawak indigenous music (two items). The Quizmaker link (https://take.quiz-maker.com/QE9RYUHGO) was shared with contacts who were asked to share the link with others. The data comprising the initial 112 responses were filtered, and three incomplete responses were deleted, leaving 109 for the analysis of means and percentages. Findings: Firstly, a larger percentage (48.44%) of Sarawak indigenous participants were more familiar with and could correctly identify Sarawakian indigenous popular music more readily than other Sarawakian participants (42.82%), as was expected. Secondly, for knowledge of indigenous songs, surprisingly, the non-Sarawak indigenous participants had slightly better knowledge about the history of Sarawak indigenous popular music than the Sarawak indigenous participants. Thirdly, the Sarawak indigenous participants and other Sarawakians were similar in their belief that it is the beat/rhythm that carries the Sarawakian identity (55.05%). The indigenous language played a role in eliciting the feeling of being Sarawakian, but only to 24.77% of the participants. Very few participants (13.76%) thought that the lyrics about the everyday life of Sarawakians made them feel the most Sarawakian. The content did not seem to be important in a song, as listeners may not pay full attention to the content of the song. Fourthly, listening to indigenous music was more of a habit for Sarawak indigenous participants, with 42.23% of Sarawak indigenous participants listening to it compared to 36.61% for other Sarawakian participants. Contribution/Impact on Society: The study contributes new knowledge by confirming that Sarawak indigenous music embodies the Sarawakian identity for people who live in Sarawak, regardless of whether they are indigenous or not. Recommendations: The results have social implications, as they identify a key to an inclusive community centered around Sarawak indigenous popular songs, because the songs can make those who are not of Sarawak indigenous origin feel connected to the land of Sarawak. In addition, a questionnaire that is in the form of a fun quiz can be used for cultural tourism. Research Limitation: First, the sample size was not balanced for indigenous (n=45) and non-indigenous (n=64) participants. Second, the music samples were only from the Iban, Bidayuh, Kenyah, and Melanau ethnic groups. Third, the data in this study are not adequate to hypothesize or theorize why non-lexical rhythm gives more emotional connection than lyrics in this specific context. Future Research: Having a larger number of indigenous participants from different groups in future studies would provide a better comparison of knowledge, attitudes, and practices across indigenous groups of different population sizes. Future studies could employ an experimental design that systematically varies musical elements (e.g., rhythm-only, melody-only, lyrics-only, and combined versions) and measure emotional responses through self-reported ratings. It would also be interesting to study which combinations of musical features (rhythmic structure, language, instrumentation, performer identity) are most salient in marking a song as both indigenous and Sarawakian. Interviews could be employed so that participants could explain how they interpret rhythm and lyrics, providing deeper insight into the mechanisms behind emotional engagement. In addition, researchers could investigate whether popular songs in the national language can evoke a nationalistic spirit among citizens, taking into consideration their language backgrounds. Future studies should investigate the appeal of indigenous music so that singers, song composers, and record labels could use the findings to widen their listener bases, giving indigenous singers a better career in the music industry.

This study examines how English-, Malay-, and Chinese-language newspapers in Malaysia represent the local LGBT community. Drawing on the Discourse-Historical Approach, 167 online news articles published in 2023 by The Star Online (English), Harian Metro (Malay), and China Press (Chinese) were analysed. The Star Online appears to take a relatively inclusive stance, incorporating diverse terms and occasionally quoting LGBT individuals while balancing progressive narratives with sociopolitical sensitivities. In contrast, Harian Metro tends to frame LGBT issues through moral and religious lenses, often portraying those who renounce their identities as examples of repentance. China Press presents a broader range of perspectives, offering both supportive and critical views without anchoring itself to a fixed ideological stance. Compared to Harian Metro, both The Star Online and China Press appear to provide more space for civil society and international voices. These distinct patterns highlight how language in news reporting operates not merely as a tool for communication but as a mechanism for negotiating ideological boundaries. Collectively, these findings shed light on how multilingual news reporting reflects differing ideological positions shaped by Malaysia's complex sociocultural and political contexts.

This study explores the perspectives of 155 students from a Malaysian university on English Language Education (ELE), focusing on Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)-aligned courses. Employing mixed methods, it investigates students’ understanding of CEFR, educational trends, strategies in CEFR-aligned lessons, and preferences for ELE. Findings indicate students prioritize educational trends like technology integration over CEFR, favoring approaches enhancing language skills and job readiness. These insights inform universities and stakeholders about student preferences, guiding ELE reform efforts.

This study examines the research landscape of social actions investigated using a bibliometric analysis of publications indexed in the Scopus database from 2002 to 2023. VOSviewer was used to visualise and analyse network maps of co-authorship and the co-occurrence of authors’ keywords related to DHA. The results reveal that the United Kingdom is a key contributor to DHA research, largely due to the prolific publications of Ruth Wodak, the approach’s proponent, from Lancaster University, along with contributions from her former students, Boukala and Forchtner. DHA research has expanded to 59 countries, reflecting its growing influence. However, co-authorship data indicate that research within this field remains largely confined to institutional and geographical boundaries, with collaborations involving only 13 countries. Building upon Reisigl’s review of DHA’s four phases of development, we present Phase Five (2017-2023) as a period when DHA research expands from evergreen areas (nationalism, national identity, populism, ideology and racism) in political discourse and media discourse into interdisciplinary approaches to investigate contemporary issues in social media discourse. A way forward for DHA research is application of the holistic framework involving analysis of all five discursive strategies to understand how language is used to achieve particular social, political, psychological or linguistic goals instead of selectively focusing on argumentation strategies and topos/topoi.

IntroductionMedia dissemination of anti-LGBT+ sentiments is commonplace in Malaysia. This study examines the prevalence of negative media exposure among LGBT+ people in Malaysia, the association between negative media exposure and mental health outcomes, and the role of negative future expectations for societal unacceptance as a mediator of the association.MethodDrawing data from a cross-sectional survey of Malaysia-based LGBT+ adults (n = 675; mean age = 27.78), we conducted a series of regression and mediation analyses to determine whether exposure to negative media messages was predictive of heightened levels of negative future expectations, depression, non-suicidal self-injury, and suicidality.ResultsMore than two-thirds (76%) saw negative LGBT-related messages regularly on newspapers, television, and social media in the past year. Frequent exposure of negative messages on media platforms was positively associated with depression, NSSI, and suicidal ideation. Negative future expectations partially mediated the relationship between exposure to negative messages and mental health outcomes.ConclusionsThe study highlights the role of negative media messages as a social determinant of mental health inequities for LGBT+ people. The findings call for a multi-level intervention to mobilize members in government sectors, healthcare settings, and academic institutions to discern and actively challenge disinformation targeting LGBT+ communities.

In recent years, social media platforms, exemplified by X (Twitter), have evolved into pivotal arenas for individuals to connect over shared interests and advocate for important societal issues collectively. This trend has notably surged since GE15, with these platforms serving as dynamic spaces for Malaysians to actively participate in national dialogues spanning social, political, religious, gender, and human rights topics. Through the medium of posts (tweets), these discussions not only spotlight pertinent issues but also unveil the diverse array of Malaysian perspectives. This study employed Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis framework to delve into social media conversations among Malaysians concerning race/ethnicity and its intersections. Utilizing publicly available posts (tweets) from January 1 to June 30, 2023, which were linked to significant local events, the analysis unearthed several salient themes. These include (1) Race and Ethnicity in Malaysian Society, (2) The Political Dimensions of Race, (3) Religious Influence on Politics, (4) Social Harmony and National Identity, (5) Media and Public Discourse, and (6) Human Rights and Equality. Collectively, these themes offer nuanced insights into Malaysia's multifaceted socio-political landscape. Despite the sometimes cursory nature of discussions on X (Twitter), the analysis reveals that these themes not only reflect racial/ethnic biases and perpetuate stereotypes and oppression but also underscore the urgent need for inclusive policies, respectful dialogue, and collective action to nurture harmony and equity within Malaysian society.

A bibliometric analysis was conducted to map out trends in publications on attitudes toward the LGBT community based on the 470 documents retrieved from the SCOPUS database for 2002-2022. The results revealed that the United States is the leading country contributing to the publications on attitudes toward the LGBT community and has a strong impact in the field (64.68%). The authorship analysis revealed that Flores, Woodford, and Worthen from the United States are the leading researchers in this field. Analysis of publication sources showed that the Journal of Homosexuality is the top publisher of findings on the LGBT community whereas the Journal of Interpersonal Violence and Sexuality and Culture have gained more traction among researchers in recent years. The analysis of the co-occurrence of author's keywords indicated that transgender is the gender group that is the most researched compared to other sexual identities. Negative attitudes such as homophobia, discrimination and being heterosexist toward one's sexuality or same-sex marriage are the current research foci. Religion and culture are seen as important predictors of attitudes about homosexuality and same-sex marriage policy. The study addresses the gaps in the literature by recommending future researchers to investigate attitudes toward other gender identities as a result of the revolution in sexual identities.

The 12 August 2023 six-states elections is the first test of the Perpaduan Government led by Anwar Ibrahim, who became the tenth prime minister of Malaysia on 26 November 2022. The election narrative in the newspapers is intriguing because his political background is not clear-cut as he had been with the ruling government and the opposition at different junctures of his political career. The study examined the evaluative aspects of language in newspaper articles on six-states elections in Malaysia published in Harian Metro, a leading Malay daily. Altogether 71 Harian Metro articles between 1 January and 31 August 2023 (18,381 words) were analysed using Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory. Out of 1,408 instances of evaluative language, 61.58% were in the graduation category, 23.58% were in the engagement category, and only 14.84% were in the attitudes category. The graduation category was dominated by the number sub-category, to provide precise facts about the elections, including a time-stamp on events. The engagement category features frequent acknowledgement of information sources to lend authenticity to views. Within the attitudes category, judgement words were frequently used to assess the attitudes and behaviours of politicians. The minimal presence of the affect and appreciation sub-categories shows avoidance of emotive expressions. The inclination towards a fact-focussed reporting maintains impartiality in the election narrative involving political parties aligned to important past and present political figures.

Television has long been recognized as a significant source of news for the mass public. Research has shown the rise and fall in the public viewing of news on television due to the advancement of digital technologies. Younger audiences, in particular, have turned to social media to access news and this trend is rapidly growing. The current study sought to ascertain if this was the case for people who may continue to watch television news despite the said technological advances. Interviews with 40 individuals from the East Malaysian state of Sarawak were conducted to gather their views on whether people living in Malaysia still watch television news and the factors contributing to this trend. The findings show that television remains an integral part of the participants' everyday lives and that it continues to be an important medium for disseminating news. While the younger participants reported that they regularly accessed news on social media, they still turned to television as a more reliable and trustworthy news source. The findings revealed several factors that contributed to television news viewing among the participants: the social-familial, the situational-environmental, the personal, and the technological. The findings shed useful insights into the current trend of television news viewing among the mass public as the world is gradually ending the COVID-19 pandemic and transitioning into endemic while experiencing news consumption on digital media.

The study examined how LGBTQ individuals negotiate their identities in the Malaysian heteronormative society using the Discourse-Historical Approach. In-depth interviews were carried out with 13 LGBTQ individuals to find out the discursive strategies they used in describing the triggers for coming out, their experiences, and the reasons for their struggles. The analysis of the interview data showed that the participants used the “destiny” and “rights” arguments to counter the “legal”, “religious” and “traditional values” arguments used by heterosexuals to reject them. Referents and personal pronouns were selectively used by LGBTQ participants to present different perspectives, “us” versus “them” (heterosexuals), “I” and other LGBTQ individuals, and “I” versus “they” or “you” (other sexual orientations). The findings have implications that are relevant to mitigation of LGBTQ identities in contexts which have strong heteronormative norms due to legal, religion and traditional values.

Ideas and discourses matter in the development of institutions. In the context of the Bangsamoro people’s struggle for self-determination, the myriad of ideas and discourses that were instigated, asserted, and contested by different actors catalyzed sporadic episodes of hostilities, co-optations, and settlements. These events, in turn, shaped their quest for self-determination and explained how, when, and why the Bangsamoro people, from initially clamoring for outright independence, have instead opted for a negotiated political settlement in the form of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). It is, therefore, the objective of this paper to discuss the impacts of ideas and discursive interactions between and among major actors vis-à-vis the development of the BARMM. The paper will trace and discuss Bangsamoro’s history of statehood, public declarations for secession, the foundation of armed movements, and the acceptance of political settlements. A discursive institutionalist framework, along with archival research and content analysis of government documents, media reports, and scholarly publications, will be employed in discussing the abovementioned matters. Undertaking this study through these approaches will allow us to understand how the discourse on the Bangsamoro struggle for self-determination shifted from being defined as an aspiration for an independent state, to an armed struggle between secessionist movements and the national government of the Philippines, and ultimately into a struggle for genuine autonomy within the framework of Philippine sovereignty. The latter discourse eventually resulted in the formation of BARMM, a secular and democratic institution that recognized not only the Bangsamoro people’s right to self-determination but also the territorial integrity of the Republic of the Philippines. Although the BARMM has been officially inaugurated, it is necessary to underscore that its degree of institutionalization will depend upon the realization or non-attainment of its objectives.

The Iban is an indigenous group living in the Malaysian state of Sarawak, located on Borneo Kalimantan. The study examined ethnic identity and consumption of Iban pop songs by investigating the influence of half- or full-Iban parentage on knowledge, attitudes and practices of listening to Iban pop songs. Questionnaire data were collected from 189 Iban participants (21.16% half-Iban; 78.84% full-Iban). The favourite genre of Iban pop songs is ballads but 74.6% of the participants could sing the iconic Iban rock song, Biar Bekikis Bulu Betis. A majority of the Iban participants listened to Iban pop songs on YouTube channels although a fair number still used the radio and mobile phones. The participants believed that Iban songs can unite the Iban and represent the Sarawakian identity. The male participants were more familiar with Iban pop songs than the female participants. Consumption of Iban music does not differ significantly with monthly income and education level. The results showed that full-Iban participants are more interested in, knowledgeable about, and positive about Iban pop songs, compared to half-Iban participants. The full-Iban participants felt strongly that Iban songs can represent the Malaysian identity, and modern Iban culture and attain the international standard. The findings suggest that Iban parents shape their children's interest in Iban popular music by inculcating a strong Iban ethnic identity.

The study examined how LGBTQ individuals negotiate their identities in the Malaysian heteronormative society using the Discourse-Historical Approach. In-depth interviews were carried out with 13 LGBTQ individuals to find out the discursive strategies they used in describing the triggers for coming out, their experiences, and the reasons for their struggles. The analysis of the interview data showed that the participants used the '' destiny '' and '' rights '' arguments to counter the '' legal '', '' religious '' and '' traditional values '' arguments used by heterosexuals to reject them. Referents and personal pronouns were selectively used by LGBTQ participants to present different perspectives, '' us '' versus '' them '' (heterosexuals), '' I '' and other LGBTQ individuals, and '' I '' versus '' they '' or '' you '' (other sexual orientations). The findings have implications that are relevant to mitigation of LGBTQ identities in contexts which have strong heteronormative norms due to legal, religion and traditional values.

This study aimed to investigate the role of Sarawak indigenous popular music (SIPM) in shaping the identity of Sarawakians at personal, social, local, and regional levels. Using surveys and interviews, the research examined how SIPM was perceived by Sarawakians and how it contributed to the creation of their unique identity. The findings revealed that respondents identified SIPM as music that is sung or performed in Sarawak indigenous languages, incorporates musical elements of ethnic groups in Sarawak, portrays indigenous lifestyles and cultures, and represents identities of indigenous groups in Sarawak. The study also found that SIPM played a significant role in creating the Sarawakian identity, which symbolizes the state’s diversity, distinctiveness, and harmony through its lyrics, rhythm, beat, and musical activities or engagements it generated. The study’s implications suggest that indigenous popular music has a more extensive impact on shaping people’s identity beyond their indigenous consciousness. Further research could build on these findings to examine the potential of indigenous popular music in constructing a sense of identity among diverse communities across the world.

There has been a recent surge of interest in and research into the use of social media among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) communities in Malaysia. Most studies, however, tend to focus on the communities' motivations for using social media, and much more needs to be known about their actual social media usage and impact—especially what "online-ness" means and why it matters to them, given the diversity within these marginalised communities. Therefore, this chapter examines social media usage among members of Malaysia's LGBTQ communities, in terms of their positions on the spectrum and the particularities of their online-ness. Based on the findings of a nationwide survey of LGBTQ individuals regarding their social media experiences, it discusses what online-ness means to them, the ways in which it is managed, its benefits and drawbacks as well as their future use of social media. It ends with a summary of the ways through which open and supportive discussions of online-ness can be created between members of these communities and the mainstream Malaysian public. This chapter is not intended to cover any of these topics in great detail—rather, it lays the groundwork for future studies regarding the nuances that not only characterise local LGBTQ communities, but which also shape their social media realities and experiences.

news via mobile devices and digital platforms such as search engines and social media. The study examined whether such trends were escalating in the contexts where a large number of people continued to access news from traditional media sources such as TV, news, and print. A survey of 512 respondents living in Sarawak, Malaysia was conducted (33.8% rural, 10% suburban, and 56.2% urban). The results showed that the mobile gadgets most commonly used to access news are smartphones (49%) and 29.5% of respondents used both smartphones and laptop computers to read the news. The streaming device most frequently used to get news was Chromecast with Google TV. A majority of the respondents read online newspapers but they mostly read free news. Only 21.7% subscribed to online news portals. A comparison showed that online newspaper was gaining popularity over printed newspapers, and the use of live news streaming, news video, and podcast was on the rise. The study revealed that 19.3% did not use any gadgets to read the news, and they relied on traditional forms such as TV, printed newspapers, and radio. The most popular TV news channels for the Sarawakians were TV3 Media Prima and the newly established TV Sarawak. Among pay TV, Astro was popular. The study showed the appeal of mainstream news outlets to satisfy the news needs of Sarawakian viewers for updates on daily news, local news, and breaking news in the digital era.

This article examines Malaysian queer literature (MQL) in terms of what it is, its characteristic elements, and how the way it is written responds to the differential treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning ( LGBTQ) people in Malaysia. The article uses the secondary data analysis method to examine existing resources on MQL to ascertain what it is, its origin, and evolution. The article then applies the analytical method developed by Blackburn, Clark, and Nemeth to examine the elements of MQL in Malaysia's anthologies of queer literature, namely, Body 2 Body - A Malaysian Queer Anthology (2009) and Mata Hati Kita/The Eyes of Our Hearts ( 2016). The analysis reveals that MQL is a new literary genre in the Malaysian literary scene and is produced for a number of reasons including to open up avenues of discussion about queer that remains subject to condemnation by the mainstream local society. Two characteristic elements of MQL are identified, namely, the multiple conceptions of sexual and gender identities, and the disruption of sexual and gender norms. The analysis also reveals that MQL is written with these elements in mind as a way to respond to the discriminatory treatment of LGBTQ people in the country. The article has implications for current efforts that seek to use MQL not only to provide readers with the diverse ways of being in the world but also to rethink existing discourses that continue to condemn LGBTQ people on the basis of gender and sexual diversity.

Personal pronouns are a linguistic device that is used to engage students at various educational levels. Personal pronouns are multifunctional and their functions range from inclusion to exclusion and include establishing rapport with students. In this chapter we compare the use of personal pronouns at university and secondary school levels. Our previous study (Yeo & Ting 2014) showed the frequent use of you in lecture introductions (2170 instances in the 37373-word corpus) to acknowledge the presence of students. The arts lecturers were more inclusive than the science lecturers reflected in the less frequent use of exclusive-we and we for one as well as the frequent use of you-generalized. We have also compiled and analyzed a 43511-word corpus from 15 English lessons in three Malaysian secondary schools. This corpus yielded 2019 instances of personal pronoun use. The results showed that you was the most frequently used personal pronoun followed by we and I. You-audience was used more than you-generalized and the main function was to give instructions to students. The teachers appeared to be more directive than the lecturers in the previous study who sometimes used the inclusive-we for you and I and we for I to lessen the social distance with students indicating that the discourse functions of personal pronouns vary with the educational context. The findings suggest that educators can be alerted to the versatility of personal pronouns for example for engaging students in the lesson and for asserting authority in the subject matter.

Background To have better prognostic outcomes and minimize deaths due to nasopharyngeal cancer, it is vital to understand factors that motivate the public to undertake cancer preventive measures. The study investigated determinants of intention to adopt measures to reduce nasopharyngeal cancer risk using the Theory of Planned Behavior. Method A cross-sectional survey was conducted on Malaysians ( n = 515) using a questionnaire on attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer, past nasopharyngeal cancer preventive behavior, and intention to adopt preventive measures. The attitudes construct encompassed perceptions of susceptibility, severity, benefits and barriers. Hierarchical regression of mediation effect under structural equation model approach was used to test the theory. The model was re-estimated using the two-stage least square approach by instrumental approach. Next the Maximum Likelihood Estimation-Structural Equation Modeling was conducted to gauge the instrumentation and check the robustness of the model’s simultaneity. Results The respondents had moderate knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer, and reported high levels of perceived risk, perceived severity and perceived behavioral control. The respondents were under little social pressure (subjective norm) to perform nasopharyngeal cancer preventive actions, marginally believed in the benefits of medical tests and reported few barriers. The Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling results show that the relationship between intention and four independent variables were significant (perceived behavioral control, perceived risk, perceived severity, marital status) at p < .05. Tests of Two-stage Least Square Approach and Maximum Likelihood Estimation-Structural Equation Modeling confirm the four key factors in determining the intention to reduce nasopharyngeal cancer risk. The variance explained by these factors is 33.01 and 32.73% using Two-stage Least Square Approach and Maximum Likelihood Estimation-Structural Equation Modeling respectively. Intention to undertake nasopharyngeal cancer risk-reducing behavior has no significant relationship with subjective norm, attitudes (perceived benefits and barriers to screening), knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer and past behavior in enacting nasopharyngeal cancer preventive measures. The only demographic variable that affects intention is marital status. Gender, age, race, religion, education level, and income are not significantly associated with intention. Conclusions In contexts where knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer is moderate, the factors associated with the intention to reduce risk are perceived risk and severity, perceived behavioral control, and marital status.