Many students matriculate into college feeling confident in their abilities to make meaning when using digital devices, though recent research suggests these students are not necessarily digitally literate. Still, 20% of incoming freshmen are required to enroll in Developmental Literacy Education, suggesting some of these students are not necessarily academically literate. Little evidence suggests Developmental Literacy Education students have digital literacies or adapt these digital literacies to academic literacies. To inform Developmental Literacy educators, four ethnically diverse Developmental Literacy Education students completed a Digital Literacies Autobiography on their past, present, and future uses as well as their values of digital literacies. Next, they were interviewed to member-check their uses and values of digital literacies and its role in academic literacies. Our conclusions confirmed these Developmental Literacy Education students use and value digital literacies for personal literacy practices, perceived a means to help others in their social communities, but struggled with connections of digital literacies to academic literacies. Implications for additional research and using these digital literacies to build academic literacies are proposed.

The first Connecting and column (Lampi, Dimino, & Salsburg Taylor, 2015), introduced a Research-to-Practice partnership (Coburn & Penuel, 2016) between two faculty from a community college and a university professor who were aiming to develop effective integrated reading and writing (IRW) instruction through a sustainable, professional development model. A second column examined the refinement process these instructors experienced while designing and implementing the IRW course (Salsburg Taylor, Dimino, Lampi, & Caverly, 2016). In this third column, we will review how this partnership became a rich source of data for researching and evaluating both IRW as well as the accompanying professional development via Torraco's (2014) call for research on practitioner-scholar collaborations: Practice is not only a setting for the application ofknowledge, it is a source ofknowledge generation (p. 1201).Research and EvaluationThe American Educational Research Association (2016) defines educational research as a scientific field of study that examines education and learning processes and the human attributes, interactions, organizations, and institutions that shape educational outcomes. We chose to complete educational research on this research-to-practice partnership using both evaluation and research (Boylan & Bonham, 2009). First we used formative evaluation to gather evidence to assess our pedagogical practices during the first 2 semesters which the course was taught. Second, we used summative evaluation after the course was taught for 2 years to determine the value of the professional development for the faculty, students, administrative, and researcher stakeholders. Third, we designed qualitative research studies to allow us to create knowledge about IRW theory and practice, collecting and analyzing observations of the faculty's content and pedagogical understanding through a survey. Fourth, we used quantitative research for measurement and calculation to inform and verify the extant IRW theory and practice. Fifth, we gathered additional quantitative, student performance data to measure and calculate effective instruction and student success over time to inform our research-to-practice partnerships.Our partnership developed an IRW course with learning outcomes that were as much about curriculum development as they were about pedagogy. Within the curriculum of this course, the readers and writers informed, persuaded, and/or entertained each other. It was neither a reading-intensive writing course nor a writing-intensive reading course. Both readers and writers completed a process of making meaning: the reader with the writer, and the writer with the reader. As students in this course gathered information transactively from multimodal sources, they converted this information into knowledge by developing existing schemata and creating new schemata as they made meaning. Students also composed meaning through reading and writing texts to meet discipline-based task demands (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2012). Additionally, through developing their metacognition, students monitored their strategic choices socioculturally en route to constructing this meaning making.Students also engaged in learning labs where they were guided collaboratively through an academic task explicitly addressing affective, cognitive, and metacognitive learning domains. These labs exposed students to additional multimodal texts in a collaborative setting where they constructed meaning through their emerging multiliteracies and reflected on the process of meaning making for a variety of reading, writing, and thinking tasks they were likely to encounter in college and their future workplace. In other words, the IRW curriculum and pedagogy engaged students through carefully designed instruction in order to encourage their consuming and producing strategies to transfer to gateway courses and beyond.IRW Formative EvaluationFor this partnership, our formative evaluation goals assessed whether our generational model (Caverly, Peterson, & Mandeville, 1997) was feasible for long-term professional development of IRW instruction among community college faculty and whether it had a positive effect on students. …

The previous "Connecting Practice to Research" (Lampi, Dimino u0026 Salsburg Taylor, 2015) column addressed a sustainable professional development model that was undergirded by research and implemented through a partnership between two community college instructors and a university professor. This second column in the series will take a look at the process two community college instructors, Salsburg Taylor and Dimino, experienced while designing and implementing a specific IRW course. They used established research and practiced constant, collaborative reflection to validate and confirm classroom practice.Designing a CourseWhile developing an Integrated Reading and Writing (IRW) course, Salsburg Taylor and Dimino collaborated in an authentic, social-constructivist approach, making meaning through collective contributions and revisions to ensure their pedagogical decisions were driven by theory, research, and collaborative reflection in order to meet the authentic needs of students. Once a course foundation was in place, they extended their discussions to collaborate with a researcher, David C. Caverly, to provide an outside informal assessment of their course as well as to consider additional literature for an extra perspective regarding IRW. These constant conversations enabled opportunities for reality checks (Simpson, 1996) and validation of pedagogical decisions.What is IRW?During course development, it was understood that IRW is not teaching reading on Mondays and writing on Wednesdays nor is it teaching students to write about readings. Tierney and Pearson (1983) argued that the acts of reading and of writing collectively compose meaning. To make this knowledge-construction process explicit, Collins, Brown, and Holum (1991) supported an "apprenticeship" approach. Thus, IRW was making cognitive processes (reading and writing) explicit to students in order for them to build cognitive structures which allowed for multiple applications. As a result, this IRW instruction moved away from teaching discrete, basic skills and instead built transferable competencies to apply to other courses and disciplines. Once the course was conceptualized and defined, the instructors made connections between what theory stated about IRW and applied it to their teaching activities.Applying IRW Theory to PracticeThree overarching principles. First, the instructors designed the course to be grounded in social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) because this IRW course was focused on creating meaning. Second, the instructors implemented an intentional, collaborative environment at multiple levels: student-to-student, instructor-to-instructor, and student-to-instructor. Third, since students beyond this course would be required to be literate in several modes (Salsburg Taylor u0026 Shamblin, 2011), the instructors identified multimodal approaches in reading and writing.Six core concepts. Goen-Salteru0027s (2013) IRW model provided an initial foundation for instruction. Her six key components were embedded and translated as core concepts into each class meeting and unit of study throughout the course. After an academic year, portions of Goen-Salteru0027s version were revised to better suit an open-access institution.Metacognition. The heart of this model was metacognition (Brown, 1985). Students were asked to consider the interconnections involved in composing and producing when making meaning. Using metacognitive strategies, students wove together key principles and learning outcomes embedded in course activities. For example, class often concluded by asking students to write an Exit Slip (Simon, 2011), reflecting on the dayu0027s lesson (e.g., What did I learn today? What am I confused about?). Consistently, students were asked to articulate the relationships of reading and writing to their other courses and their lives outside of school. After reading Collins et. alu0027s (1991) notion of Cognitive Apprenticeship, it was clear that explicitly modeling internal thinking processes provided another opportunity for not just "making thinking visible" but also embedding metacognition in other instructional activities. …

This year we have been discussing the role of mobile learning apps in integrated reading and writing as well as in mathematics. In this column we will review specific apps for fostering disciplinary literacy in science. Mobile learning has the ability to engage students in creative, collaborative, and meaningful learning experiences (Cobcroft, Towers, u0026 Smith, 2006) and can enhance student learning (Rossing, Miller, Cecil, u0026 Stamper, 2012) while also being highly accessible through low-cost educational platforms. With hundreds of apps on science learning, many of which are "edutainment" and not educational (Okan, 2003), it is often difficult to choose effective apps for learning. In this column we will focus on apps that can enhance studentsu0027 development of disciplinary literacy reading and writing strategies at the college level. Although we mention several apps by name, we are recommending apps that have specific educational functions, not endorsing any one particular app.Disciplinary LiteracyDisciplinary literacy introduces students to the learning "secrets" of each content area. It is used to measure college readiness in those states that adopted the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices u0026 Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010) as well as several states that did not. These measures will likely play a large role in determining readiness once students reach college. There is increasing evidence that teaching unique disciplinary practices pays offin increased text comprehension, motivation, and achievement (Shanahan u0026 Shanahan, 2012). Historically, developmental education (DE) literacy courses have focused largely on generalizable reading skills such as selecting main ideas, summarizing, and other basic comprehension strategies that can be applied to most texts (Shanahan u0026 Shanahan, 2008). The emphasis of disciplinary literacy shifts this approach a bit as it provides an induction into the knowledge, abilities, language, discourse patterns, and purposes of each discipline (Fang, 2012; Shanahan u0026 Shanahan, 2012).For example, many college students do not know that text and graphic representation are equally important to understanding scientific concepts. When scientists read text, they often transform information from visual (e.g., a graphic of a molecule) to textual (e.g., a description of the components of the molecule) as a way to understand science processes. Conversely, many science faculty do not realize their students do not automatically make these transformations as they learn science. A disciplinary literacy approach teaches students how to navigate these discipline-specific expectations. The use of mobile apps can assist students in developing such disciplinary skills. In sum, if students learn the reading, writing, vocabulary skills, and learning strategies currently taught in many developmental education classrooms along with specific disciplinary practices which have been found to be an important consideration for student engagement in learning (Hull u0026 Moje, 2012), they can be more successful in college beyond DE courses.Close ReadingClose reading is one of the prominent ideas behind disciplinary reading (Shanahan u0026 Shanahan, 2012). Close reading involves reading with purpose and, often, careful rereading of the text. However, close reading looks different within each discipline. For example, close reading in history involves considering sourcing, context, and corroboration of events in the text ( Wineburg, 1991). In science, close reading often involves moving between texts and diagrams to integrate the ideas into an understanding of a process (Shanahan u0026 Shanahan, 2008). The goal of close reading in any discipline is to think about and comprehend the text at hand. Mobile apps such as Explain Everything (MorrisCook, 2014; Apple operating system, henceforth iOS and Android operating system, henceforth Android) can help scaffold students learning to use close reading in the sciences. …

In the last column, I discussed the role of mobile devices (i.e., phones, tablets, laptops) in everyday lives and in academia. In this column, I'll review specific apps for fostering literacy development. Still, with over 800,000 apps for Apple and Android devices (iOS or Android respectively) and the Windows phones catching up, only a few apps can be shared in this space.First, a caveat; the apps discussed here are based upon an epistemological stance that literacy instruction should be integrated. That is, a belief that reading and writing are cognitive processes allowing humans to socially construct meaning in a variety of contexts including but not limited to academia. Readers and writers, speakers and listeners, consumers and producers all construct meaning through an interaction between their knowledge, a text, and the context using cognitive and metacognitive strategies to fit their goals. Thus, integrated reading and writing (IRW) is meaning making through literacy activities in a broad sense. Literacy is negotiated (Holschuh & Paulson, 2013) in this sociocultural context by sharing one's understanding through consuming and producing texts broadly defined as oral, print, graphic, audio, and video.Given these assumptions about literacy, how can mobile apps benefit students in this academically literate context. Much like cooking a good vegetable soup, IRW is an iterative process whereby students gather information as they consume texts, arranging that information by adding or adapting it into their prior knowledge, producing a draft text to represent that knowledge, and presenting that draft to solicit feedback. Then, reflecting and responding to that feedback, students cycle back through as they gather, consume, arrange, add, adapt, produce, and present until they feel meaning is made. Also, like a good soup, students have to let it go at a point and reflect on what they would do the next time.To extend this conversation, I invite you to a DevEd Apps blog (http:// devedapps.wp.txstate.edu) where you can access all the citations, discuss the free and low cost apps I am citing, share other useful apps and how to implement them, share research on mobile learning, and add comments. At this blog, I have also organized these apps into a process model and populated it with apps that I cite within this article (Caverly, 2013).Mobile Apps for IRWLet's say a professor wants his or her students to learn about the Grand Canyon by producing one of three concise, mulitmodal guides for park visitors. Breaking the class into three project perspectives (historical, geological, and marketing), students must recognize their perspective's assigned task as the first step in this academic environment. Posting the task to a Learning Management System (LMS), the professor encourages students to read the assignment and rubric using mobile apps such as Blackboard Mobile, Desire2Learn, or many others specific to the LMS.Next, students use mapping apps like MindMeister or Inspiration to brainstorm and consider their existing knowledge about this task. As they write, students organize prior knowledge using their chosen perspective as the major topics, adding whatever details they know about the canyon.MindMeisteralso allows students to collaboratively share their individual maps among their project group, evaluating what information is similar, different, or missing. Other apps, then, allow the project group members to accumulate additional knowledge through the mobile version of Google Search which can be voice controlled. Once a useful source is found, bibliographic information can be captured using apps like ZotPad (for iOS) or Zandy (for Android) which sync with Zotero for the laptop or desktop, facilitating the creation of a reference list. News aggregator apps like Flipboard or Zite allow students to get current text or images or create personal e-magazines fostering lifelong reading. Other apps are available for e-textbooks like CourseSmart or Kno whereas apps like Kindle or Bluefire Reader allow students to download free e-books. …

In the last column, Caverly (2013) discussed mobile apps for fostering literacy development. In this column, we will discuss apps useful in developing mathematical reasoning.To place these apps into a theoretical framework, we will suggest how these apps could be used in an instructional model such as the Algorithmic Instructional Technique (AIT) developed by Vasquez (2003) which includes four stages: modeling, practice, transition, and independence. The instructional goal with AIT is to help students develop algorithms to approach different math situations. We chose AIT because it is a balance between behaviorist and constructivist instructional models. Behaviorist models typically focus on teacher-centered knowledge transfer, whereas constructivist models typically direct students to an active construction of knowledge from information provided (Grubb et al., 2011). Because of the low success rate of students in developmental math coursework, Grubb et al. argued for a more constructivist or balanced approach rather than what he and his colleagues saw as a behaviorist, remedial pedagogy. Instruction through AIT provides that balance because it allows students to see how an instructor develops an algorithm and how she or he gives opportunities for students to create, use, and refine the algorithm when encountering different situations. Since instructors using the AIT model expect students to be active in their learning, faculty could easily integrate technology into the four stages so that students could use their mobile devices to collaborate and deepen their learning.Integrating Technology into AITModelingIn the modeling stage of AIT, the instructor demonstrates how to create and use algorithms to solve a problem based on observations and critical thinking. For example, when discussing how to solve quadratic equations, the instructor analyzes a given mathematical problem through think-alouds. Using mathematical language with specialized vocabulary, the instructor shows the students an algorithm by describing the thought process behind choosing factoring, completing the square, or using the quadratic formula to solve the problem. Understanding this language can be fostered by capturing the instructoru0027s think-alouds and language usage. Apps like Super Note (Clear Sky Apps, n.d.; Apple operating system, henceforth iOS), Smart Voice Recorder (Smartmob Development, 2013; Android operating system, henceforth Android), or the camera and microphone apps built into smartphones or tablets can record the lecture or take snapshots of instructor board notes. For class notes, students could use Noteshelf (Fluid Touch PTE. LTD, 2012, iOS) or Handwriting (Appest Inc, 2013; Android). These apps capture the studentsu0027 handwriting, making the writing of mathematical symbols easier than keyboard-based, notetaking apps. When the instructor finishes modeling a useful algorithm, students then share their notes via Evernote (Evernote Inc., 2013; Android, iOS) to compare their understanding of the material with their peers.Guided PracticeDuring guided practice for AIT, the instructor supports students in their initial creation, use, and implementation of the algorithm. Various activities facilitate this process, such as error analysis. For example, the instructor could provide a worked example of a solved quadratic equation that contains errors and ask students to describe the algorithm used, locate the mistakes, and discuss potential corrections. The instructor could share a worked example as a PDF via DropBox (Dropbox, Inc., 2014; Android, iOS) or Drive (Google, Inc., 2013a; Android, iOS). Students individually could then use Adobe Reader (Adobe Inc., 2014; Android, iOS) to annotate where they believe the error is located and add comments to describe the error, discuss potential corrections, and create an appropriate algorithm for the problem. Afterwards, students could share their annotations and comments with peers before sharing with the instructor using DropBox, Google Drive, or EverNote (Evernote Inc. …

As the rate of developmental reading students continues to climb, so does the surge in digital platforms as a means to deliver postsecondary instruction. Students enrolled in developmental reading courses should not be assumed to have digital literacy skills simply because they have been termed a “digitally literate generation.” In this study, one digital technology—multiuser virtual environments (MUVEs)— provided a platform that allowed students to engage in learning opportunities congruent with digital literacy. Examined in this study were (a) the digital literacy skills of developmental readers, (b) the differences in digital literacies between developmental reading students who used a MUVE and those who did not, and (c) the behaviors exhibited by students indicating their degree of digital nativeness. Participants in the experimental group demonstrated digital literacy through reading activities and observations in the MUVE, Second Life, and made higher reading achievement gains over the control group.

Last year, Burgess and Caverly (2010) used the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000) as a guide for fostering online learning when building developmental literacy. McDaniel and Caverly (2010) also applied the model to developmental math. In this column, we'll apply this model to the development of writing. In future columns this year, we'll apply the CoI model to converting a face-to-face class to an online class.Cognitive Presence for Online WritingA cognitive presence in an online course occurs when teachers create a learning environment in which learners are able to construct higher levels of meaning through sustained, collaborative communication, moving from an initiating event through exploration, integration, and resolution (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009). In an online writing course, this occurs when students have information provided by a strong teacher presence. Students perceive a high level of cognitive presence in online courses if there is a high level of teacher presence in the online courses (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009): The instructor supplies questions and/or materials that require a deep level of consideration or critical thinking on the part of the students. The research also reveals that students perceive a high level of cognitive presence when they experience a strong social presence which supports co-constructing knowledge.Social Presence for Online WritingSocial presence as defined by the CoI model is the ability of the students to project their personal characteristics into the community of learners while feeling a sense of trust (Kanuka & Garrison, 2004). In an online writing course, the teacher can support social presence through the delivery of information and its application in the assigned work. For example, starting with a threaded discussion related to a reading assignment and ending with a reflective paper written by individual students after they have processed the different perspectives emerging from the discussion promotes social presence. Such exchanges can also be a part of a peer editing conversation added by the instructor of the course.Other instructors generate a social presence by providing students verbal feedback on their writing using Microsoft Word. Kim (2004) has suggested that for some students verbal feedback is more personal and conversational even if the instructor has recorded the feedback (Lewis, 2010). Adding audio feedback is much simpler in Word 2007 than the newer versions of Word 2010forWindows7(Rohn007,2010)orWord2011forMac (Microsoft Office Mac, 2011), though still possible. Other students would rather have written feedback from the instructor containing specific information to improve their writing. Active exchanges of feedback to facilitate the social presence for the student are the priority.Another means of fostering a social presence in an online writing course is using a social media tool like Diigo (Digest of Internet Information, Groups and Other Stuff; Web 2.0 teaching tools, 2009). Although it is free, students need to register to participate online. Diigo is a cloud-based social bookmarking tool that allows a student to compose a document online (e.g., a. Google document); and then add highlights, write sticky notes, and add tags to represent his or her challenges, thinking, and revisions as the document is being composed (cf., Fulton, 2011). The social presence occurs when each group member comments on these Diigo highlights, notes, or tags to asynchronously and collaboratively add, delete, or change the group's understanding of what it means to compose. This co-construction of knowledge created through social presence allows all students in the group to share both their declarative knowledge of what they were attempting to write and, more importantly, their procedural knowledge about the strategies they used to produce this document.Teaching Presence for Online WritingAlthough social and cognitive presence are vital components, teaching presence is also necessary to a successful online writing course. …

In the last column, Burgess and Caverly (2010) reintroduced the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000) as a guide for fostering online learning and for building developmental literacy. In this column, we'll apply this CoI model to the development of mathematical numeracy.BackgroundAn effective means to improve efficiency in professor-student instructional interaction is through an model (Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000). Using this model, in-class activities (e.g., a math lecture) are viewed by students through instructional video podcasts prior to attending class, and out-of class activities (e.g., homework problems) are done inside the classroom. Students thus can control the lecture by reviewing each video as often as they need and receiving a first exposure to concepts before attending class (Foertsch, Moses, Strikwerda, & Litzkow, 2002). Through inductive video instruction, specific questions emerge as students apply what they learned in the classroom where professors can identify struggling students to give immediate feedback essential for student success (Chickering & Gamson, 1987).Because in-class direct instructional activities are removed, time is available for student teams to actively analyze and synthesize homework problems, to examine the process of learning math, and to increase the amount of student-to-student and student-to-professor dialogue. Following the CoI model, a high level of cognitive presence emerges as students are required to evaluate and defend their conceptual understanding of the mathematics to their peers and professor. A teaching presence emerges as the professor explicitly guides students' explorations and reflections on their ideas, assumptions, and answers. A social presence emerges as students and professor project themselves socially and emotionally as 'real' people (Garrison et al, 2000, p. 89) as the team solves math problems. Spending a greater proportion of the class time interacting with students is one of the most important aspects in student motivation (Chickering & Gamson, 1987).Bowen (2006) noted math faculty under this instructional model were no longer bound by the tyranny of the (D 4). Gannod, Burge, and Helmick (2008) found through an inverted classroom within a software engineering class that students reported video lectures were helpful and appreciated class time use for assignments. Other studies involving engineering statics courses (Papadopoulos, Santiago -Roman, & Portela, 2010) found students performed comparably to their traditional instruction counterparts and preferred the inverted format. Lage et al. (2000) reported, because the responsibility for getting the content was shifted to the student, students took ownership of their learning.Inverted Developmental Mathematics ClassAn inverted classroom model used in the first author's developmental math classes involved three major areas. First, learning outcomes for the class were identified and defined at the level of specificity needed to begin creating the in-class and outside of class materials. Second, the in-class instruction was created including activities such as basic concept worksheets, group work to challenge students at a more conceptual level, and graded board work for students to explain their developing knowledge. Third, online instructional video podcasts were created to provide a first exposure to the material and concepts in order to develop enough understanding of the content to buttress the in-class activities. Video instruction was implemented but not specifically designed to address students' learning styles, as research is virtually nonexistent regarding the efficacy of incorporating learning style preferences in the curriculum (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2009; Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008; Willingham, 2005).SoftwareSeveral options are available to produce the instructional video podcasts. …

Techtalk in Volume 33 has been addressing the digital divide in technology, first through the use of mobile phones and then through the development of digital literacies with digital storytelling. This third and final column in the series looks at bridging both the hardware/software divide and the digital literacies divide through the educational use of cloud computing.The Advent of Cloud ComputingThe history of personal computing could be summed up as a race to provide larger and larger amounts of data storage that can be manipulated at faster and faster speeds in smaller and smaller devices. Over the years, data has moved from floppy disks to hard drives to USB thumb drives and most recently to solid-state RAM drives. Likewise, computers downsized from the desktop to the laptop and even smaller with netbooks like the HP Mini and tablet computers like the new Apple iPad. This idea has had a strong impact in changing the way users work, play, and socialize.Concurrently, the network that used to link only college campuses, businesses, and government agencies began to spread as well, and it eventually made its way to individual computers. Personal computers began to connect to this larger network, the Internet, through wired connections like phone modems and cable modems and then through wireless connections, which facilitated the move to smaller, more mobile computers. Over the past decade and a half, these personal machines, with their local data storage and processing power, have merged with the Internet, and a infrastructure was created where it is often difficult to discern where the individual ends and the network begins.Both of these ideas, shrinking computing devices and increasing network access, have converged in recent years to bring us handheld mobile devices like iPhones, smartphones, and tablet computers that connect to the Internet over always-on cellular connections. Now the network really is everywhere, or at least everywhere there is a cell-phone signal.Cloud computing is the natural extension of this always-on connection, and it posits a view of computing in which all data and all the applications to create and manipulate that data exist in the cloud; that is, on the Internet in various online services. If you are putting your photos on Flickr (www.flickr.com), writing documents using Google Docs (docs. google.com), posting your thoughts to a blog, collaborating with coworkers in a wiki, socializing with Facebook (www.facebook.com), or tweeting from your phone using Twitter (www.twitter.com), you are already using the cloud (although true cloud computing would see all computing, not just some, occurring in this manner).To access the cloud, all that is needed is an Internet connection and a way to view the Internet, most likely a web browser or other app that connects to the Internet. With cloud computing, it no longer matters what local hardware (laptop, desktop, smartphone, netbook) or what operating system (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux) is being used. It is a view of computing that supersedes any past battle in the personal computing world, whether that battle was Windows versus Macs, Netscape versus Microsoft, or proprietary software versus open-source software. With cloud computing, none of these divisions matter; data and applications are available everywhere. As John Gage at Sun Microsystems said years ago, network is the computer (PCWorld, 2009). The choice of how to access that network is up to the individual.Implications of Cloud ComputingSo, what does this mean for developmental students and educators? The first, and perhaps most important, element when addressing issues inherent to the digital divide is lowered costs, both for software and hardware. Why pay for Microsoft Office when you can use the free, web-based office suites offered by Google or Zoho (www.zoho.com) or even Microsoft itself (which will begin offering a browser-based version of their Office applications with the release of Office 2010)? …

In a previous Techtalk column, Peterson and Caverly (2005) introduced Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001) as a guide for online learning. The CoI model has maintained longevity and applicability to a variety of both synchronous and asynchronous technologies (Ice, Curtis, Phillips, & Wells, 2007). In this column, we will revisit CoI model and its application to new synchronous and asynchronous instructional tools situated within developmental literacy. In future columns, we'll apply it to developmental math and writing.Laying Virtual GroundworkWhen technology is integrated into a classroom, learner attitudes and outcomes match or surpass that of instruction which does not use technology (cf., Burgess, 2009; Rosen 8c Salomon, 2007). Further, Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, and Cammack (2004) have stressed importance in global economy to equip students with new literacies that support social communication and use of communication technologies. Many incoming freshman are already equipped with these social technological skills, including those who are developing their literacy (Burgess, 2010). However, instructors in DE (developmental education) would be well-served to examine and measure students' digital literacy toward informing instruction, as often it is shallow (Caverly, Peterson, Delaney, & Starks-Martin, 2009).Some hesitation, however, has occurred with promotion of online (be it all online or hybrid) developmental literacy due to high attrition rates and a lack of confidence in medium. One reason cited is that developmental students cannot handle independent nature of this delivery mode (Petrides, Kerglani, & Nguyen, 2006). Others have argued that DE students need instant feedback and teacher presence to learn effectively; therefore, online learning may place them at risk for dropout or feeling isolated (Boylan, 2002; Maxwell, 1997). However, with continuing emergence of new learning technologies, instant feedback and teacher presence can be attained online with appropriate guiding framework.Community of Inquiry ModelGarrison, Anderson, and Archer's (2000) CoI model is based on an interaction of three major instructional components: social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching presence, which augment an effective educational learning experience. Social presence focuses on either asynchronous or synchronous online communicative interactivity among learners by using social, constructivist activities. Learning technologies embrace critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving of real- world problems to create this social presence (Trilling 8c Fadel, 2009). Cognitive presence is defined as the extent to which meaning can be constructed by sustained communication within a group of people (Garrison et al., 2001, p. 3), implying that social presence must be established prior to emergence of cognitive understanding. Teaching presence stresses importance of instructor guidance and support to direct these social constructivist activities and foster cognitive presence. Teaching presence is particularly important for DE students as many are learning self- regulatory skills.Best PracticesThe following best practices provide guidelines for DE literacy instructors using new and emerging technologies within CoI model. They can help ensure smooth and effective delivery of instruction.Address Access, Attitude, and Educational Issues Prior to Technology ImplementationMake sure technical and educational support for faculty and students using technology is readily available. For example, support through wireless Internet access, sufficient hardware for those without computers or smart phones, and technical support structures when problems arise is essential.Identify Concepts/Strategies to be LearnedObjectives for learning must be identified prior to teaching with technology as they guide direction of learning. …

As any college professor will attest, mobile phones are ubiquitous on college campuses. Although many students have access to this technology in their purses and pockets, hands-on accessibility to technology does not guarantee digital literacy. There are two levels of a digital divide: a first level as a divide in access to hardware, software, and broadband Internet connections and a second level as a divide in knowledge in digital literacy on how to use this technology (Caverly, Peterson, Delaney, & Starks-Martin, 2009). In this year's Techtalk columns we will address mobile phones. In the next column, we'll address reducing these divides through digital storytelling. In the final column, we'll explore building higher digital literacy through Cloud computing, (i.e. storing files on an external server).Mobile LearningMorgan Stanley (2008) reports 60% of the world's population has access to a mobile phone, though this is somewhat misleading as there are more mobile phones in Italy than there are people (Wikipedia Foundation Inc., 2009b). Mobile phones have replaced desktop or laptop computers as the primary means of wireless Internet access for English-speaking Hispanics (68%) and African Americans (65%) in the U.S., far outpacing Whites (33%), many of whom choose to use laptops (Horrigan, 2009). Anderson and Rainie (2008) project by 2020 mobile phones will be the primary connection device for the Internet.Despite the increasing hands-on accessibility of these powerful mobile devices, most college professors dissuade their use and consider them to be distractions. Students' phones are often collected before a test, and often students are removed from class if they are googling a term used by the professor. This disconnect between out-of-school literacy skills (i.e., critical literacy skills; Pawan & Honeyford, 2009) and in-school literacy tasks (i.e., academic literacy) has generated reports of boredom and low motivation among many students (Prensky, 2009).However, in classrooms that include a blending of critical literacy skills with academic literacy tasks, a different picture emerged. For example, Thortan and Houser (as cited in Zhang, 2008) found 71% of Japanese college students preferred the use of text messages to e-mail and 93% saw value in receiving English lessons sent to their mobile phones. Misono and Akahori (2008) reported that using text messaging with a secret word provided during class was an efficient means of taking attendance in a large lecture hall. Hartnell-Young and Heym (2008) demonstrated effective uses with secondary school students completing social-constructivist learning projects in which mobile phones were used for timing experiments, sharing files, photographing scientific apparati, conversing via text message, syncing calendars, creating narrative movies, using the Global Positioning System (GPS) to identify locations, and transferring files from home to school. Uffendell, Hefferen, and Finnigan (2009) found three uses of mobile phones effective for college students with disabilities. A mobile phone's GPS with speech aided students' mobility, text messaging with speech improved the delivery of messages from the college, and the Mobile Daisy Player (V. 2.2; codefactory, 2009) read e-books to students.Repurposing Mobile PhonesAs more students acquire 3G (third generation, Internet capable) phones, more applications to developmental education will emerge. In the meantime, GPS capabilities in 3G mobile phones can facilitate a campus orientation through a mobile WebQuest (Bottentuit, Coutinho, & Sternaldt, 2006). Students could be asked to explore the support programs on campus, create scenarios when a student would need these supports, and send their assignment as an attachment to a text message. Basic text messaging capabilities could be used to ask students to reflect on what they are learning. Text messages could act as exit slips, comments providing feedback for the instructor. …

In our previous two columns, we discussed the potential for using blogs and wikis with developmental education (DE) students. Another Web 2.0 technology, virtual environments like Second Life, provides a virtual world where residents create avatars (three-dimensional [3-D] self-representations) and navigate around an online environment (Caverly, Peterson, Delaney, 8c Starks-Martin, 2009). Other virtual environments comparable to Second Life have emerged (Virtual Environments Info Group, 2007).Second Life differs from asynchronous blogs and wikis because the 3-D interface allows users to immerse themselves into synchronous interactivity. Information can be disseminated through video, note cards, e-mail, simulations, mapping, bodily actions, or text-based conversation histories. Avatars can discuss this information using text-based chatting (thus creating a downloadable history) or through a voice tool (requiring a microphone and speakers). Communicating synchronously through avatars provides the opportunity for greater social interactivity which is a vital factor when developing a community of inquiry within online or hybrid DE courses or learning support (Garrison, 1985; Peterson 8c Caverly, 2006).From a MMOG to a MUVESecond Life grew out of Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOG) of the 1970s such as Dungeons and Dragons ( Wikipedia Foundation Inc., 2009a) and more currently World of Warcraft (Wikipedia Foundation Inc., 2009b). Emerging as Linden World in 2002, it allowed users, by invitation only, to create avatars known as primitars (Rymaszewski, Wagner, Wallace, Winters, Ondrejka, 8c Batsone-Cunningham, 2006), gawky robots made of prims (objects). Second Life was envisioned not as another game but as a new country where users (i.e., avatars) could explore and interact. In 2003 Second Life became publically available, which allowed Second Life to gain users and become a Massive Multiuser Virtual Environment (MUVE).At the time of this writing, approximately 1.4 million users log into Second Life regularly. Activities in Second Life have grown from gaming to simulations, collaborations, and explorations that mirror real-world learning environments. The potential for Second Life for teaching and learning holds great promise for constructivist learning among DE students.Second Life in Higher EducationWith Second Life tools for creating and scripting, immersion into these social, collaborative spaces serves as fertile ground in higher education. There are more than 200 higher education institutions with an active presence in Second Life, sharing virtual tours of their campuses, instructional activities in a variety of disciplines, and educational experiences (Rymaszewski et al., 2006). The Second Life Educators (SLED) listserv has more than 3,900 members sharing discussions on best practices, conferences, workshops, and courses within Second Life. Examples of how Second Life is being used for instruction in higher education can also be found (Kay 8c FitzGerald, 2009; Mengel, Simonds, & Houck, 2009; xxArete2xx, 2009).Second Life in Developmental EducationSecond Life can simulate a highly engaging, problem-solving, collaborative, immersive learning environment for DE students, particularly if the pedagogy involves cognitive, social, and teaching presence (Garrison, Anderson, 8c Archer, 2000; Peterson 8c Caverly, 2006). Second Life teaching activities could provide the type of online instruction environment millennial students desire (Howe & Strauss, 2000), thereby appealing to DE students and the strategies they are developing (i.e., self-regulation, engagement, reading, and writing).For example, a virtual environment for effective math group tutoring might be created in a campus' Second Life learning center between a tutor's avatar and several DE students' avatars as the tutor teaches them how to solve functions with two unknowns. The tutor's avatar could begin by showing math examples in business or engineering (i. …

Middle school science teachers report using textbooks regularly although these textbooks have been criticized for not following standards‐based principles for concept learning, and student reading achievement has been stagnant for 20 years. Effective strategic reading instruction has been documented for middle school students but few teachers use these strategies. To address these issues, a quasi‐experimental research study compared middle school students (n = 23) who learned a strategic reading strategy (PLAN) for science textbooks to students (n = 27) who read silently following an audiotaped reading of the text. The strategic reading group significantly outperformed the silent reading group on a comprehension test of scientific concepts ( p <. 001) and strategy use ( p < .01). The teacher reported that her students gained self‐confidence in reading and found reading to be more enjoyable. This research uses a more rigorous design than prior studies of the PLAN strategy but supports previous findings and adds to an understanding of how to implement PLAN.

In the last column, we began discussing Web 2.0 In this column, we'll review participatory, social networking software called We'll define wikis, discuss their use in classrooms, explore benefits provided for collaborative knowledge construction, and explain five types of with applications to developmental education (DE).What is a Wiki?Wikis are a variety of dynamic Web pages that can be edited using Web browsers (Wikipedia Foundation Inc. [WFI], 2008a). Although the best example of a wiki is Wikipedia, others include MySpace or YouTube discussed in our last column. Wikis allow a group to collaboratively construct a document online by subscribing and then editing multimedia using simple text editors. Tags, RSS (Real Simple Syndication), feeds, and full-page editing are often available. If unwanted changes occur, a moderator can easily launch a previous version from a catalog. For more information, view Wikis in Plain English (LeFever & LeFever, 2007).Examples of WikisWikis have been used in a variety of assignments, and examples are generally accessible after joining a wiki site and searching for educational applications. For example, a quick search on the topic wikis in college in WikiSpaces (2008) at the time of this writing found 87 education wikis. Applications of DE can be found at the Online Teaching and Learning Wiki site created by Julie Hutchin's project for TIDE in 2006 (Hutchin, 2008) or the Developmental Education Wiki site created by Caverly (2008).Researchers have consistently documented the value of publishing students' collaborative writing in terms of increased motivation, positive attitudes, and greater achievement (Ajjan & Hartshorne, 2008). Newer research is suggesting writing using Web 2.0 technology changes how students construct meaning (Writing in Digital Environments [WIDE] Research Center, 2008).Coconstructing Meaning with a WikiA wiki blurs the line between the reader and the writer. Both are encouraged to coconstruct knowledge through reading and editing text (in the broad sense of print, graphic, audio, and video), adding tags to classify meaning, and participating in a learning community where the group coconstructs knowledge and takes ownership of a message (Cummings, 2008). Wikis thus provide a social constructivist, epistemological stance (Vygotsky, 1978) allowing knowledge to be collaboratively constructed among students (Resta & Laferridere, 2007). Truth is relativistic, variable, and determined by the group (Garfinkel, 2008). Through the wisdom of the (Liotta, 2008) and students discussing, writing, and sharing combined knowledge and perceptions of reality, an understanding (i.e., truth) is determined.Wikipedia (WFI, 2008b) builds upon this phenomenon in their creation of an online, wild-based encyclopedia. It seemingly is the first source students seek out for new information. Still, Wikipedia does not purport to present the truth about what is known about a given topic as documented by experts. Rather, it presents what the crowd thinks is the truth, using a different epistemological set of standards including three policy thresholds for inclusion into its wiki (WFI, 2008c): (a) verifiability policy, where justification that the information is published is the criteria for acceptance, not experts' evidence; (b) original research policy, where no original thought is accepted; and (c) neutral point of view policy, where all points of view are presented regardless of validity. These epistemological standards are counter to expectations of a postsecondary education.Recent research has compared Wikipedia to more traditional sources. Chesney (2006) compared 55 academics reading either Encyclopaedia Britannica entries or Wikipedia entries and found generally no difference in their credibility, suggesting the accuracy of Wikipedia was high. However, Rector (2008) compared nine Wikipedia entries to Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Dictionary of American History, and American National Biography Online. …

In the first Volume 31 column, Caverly and Fitzgibbons (2007) reviewed Assistive Technology (AT) for reading. This column will focus on AT for writing. How would a writer with disabilities create this column: compose on paper or on a computer, create and follow an outline developed through research online or in a library, collaborate with others on drafts through mobile phones and e-mail, and then send it to the publisher electronically as an attachment?AT for Writing AccessOutlining/mapping programs like Inspiration (2008), Draft: Builder (Don Johnston Inc., 2008), or Visual Thesaurus (ThinkMap Inc., 2008) can assist students with disabilities (Swd) to store and organize what they generate during the brainstorming step. When more information is found, programs like Draft: Builder (Don Johnston Inc.), EndNote (Thompson ResearchSoft, 2008), or RefWorks (2008) can help Swd input and organize reference citations into APA or MLA format.For prewriting and composing, text-to-speech software provides auditory feedback for what is encoded. For example, programs like Write-OutLoud (Don Johnston Inc., 2008) or utilities built into the operating system such as Narrator (Microsoft Corporation, 2oo8b) or VoiceOver (Apple Inc., 2oo8b) offer audio-feedback. Thus writing is scaffolded with an oral reading, fostering metacognition and allowing Swd to monitor their composing.Although these AT solutions are useful for some Swd, and even garden-variety immature writers, those with mobility impairments need other ATs to allow encoding. Garrett (2008) suggests no-tech solutions like changing how the pen is held, using felt tip makers to provide less resistance against the paper, or increasing the size of the pen. Defining the boundaries with raised or wax lines, changing the angle of the paper, or even stabilizing the paper with a clipboard can also provide assistance.Dictating to a transcriber is a light-tech accommodation. Although generally effective, Higgins and Raskind (1995) have reported a social influence when comparing no assistance to transcribed assistance for Swd; when using a transcriber, many students have reported spending less time planning and organizing because they felt they were keeping the transcriber waiting or felt embarrassment about making mistakes or asking for multiple readings of what was written. It is therefore important that AT be contextualized.Other light-tech writing devices are available such as alternative keyboards that provide larger or smaller than traditional keys, can be configured to be alphabetic rather than standard QWERTY format, or can be a one-handed device (AbilityHub, 2008). Keyboard filters can reduce the number of keystrokes needed to enter letters and words. Both operating systems provide keyboard filter technology such as sticky keys (where one key represents several key strokes), the ability to change the delay rate (to reduce key repeats), an on-screen keyboard, or shortcut for menu navigation (Apple Inc., 20083; Microsoft Corporation, 20o8a). High-tech input devices which replace the keyboard and mouse include touch screens, eye movement electronic pointing devices (e.g., ERICA Systems, (Eye Response Technologies, 2008), sip-and-puff systems activated by inhaling and exhaling, wands worn on one's head or chin, or joysticks and trackballs controlled by one's hands or feet (AbilityHub, 2008).AT for Writing AssistanceOnce access is available, high-tech AT devices can assist the writing process. Word prediction software, such as Co-Writer (Don Johnston Inc., 2008) or Read-Write GOLD (Texthelp Systems, 2007), allows Swd to key in a letter or an initial phoneme, pause, and then receive a list of predicted words (the list can be spoken if clicked). During ideation, relevant words can also be provided to complete a sentence.Gillette and Huffman (1995) argued that before word prediction could be effective Swd must have prerequisite literacy skills, such as understanding the purpose and organization of a message as well as the ability to recognize onset in words in order to begin word prediction with a phonemically appropriate letter. …