Limited evidence exists examining associations between motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness in young adults. The study aims were to (a) determine group differences in MC and fitness in a sample of young adults, (b) examine the strength of the relationship between motor and fitness measures, and (c) determine the extent to which MC predicts fitness results. Young adults (n = 332, Mage = 21.47 +/- 1.83) were recruited from seven universities across the United States of America, Italy, and Spain. Product-oriented measures of MC (kick and receive, throw-catch, jump, and Supine-to-Stand and Go) and health-related fitness (handgrip, plank, push-up, and 20-m shuttle run) were used. Group comparisons were analyzed using Kruskall-Wallis H and Mann-Whitney U tests. In both motor and fitness assessments, the U.S. sample tended to perform significantly better than their Italian and/or Spanish counterparts. The Italian sample outperformed the Spanish sample in all motor and fitness measures, except for aerobic fitness. Associations between motor and fitness tests were determined via Pearson correlations ranging from +/- 0.20 to 0.70. Linear regression results indicate that sex, not MC, was the strongest predictive variable for fitness outcomes. Cross-cultural differences in MC and fitness exist but it is not clear why or when these differences begin to emerge.

Human development encompasses the integration of neuromotor, psychological, social-emotional, and cognitive processes across time. This paper seeks to advance the understanding of motor and cognitive development by proposing a novel assessment paradigm. Specifically, we aim to 1) provide a conceptual bridge, based on multidisciplinary evidence, to effectively link the concurrent development of motor competence and executive functions via learning-related and exercise-related neurotrophic mechanisms, and 2) use this conceptual bridge to inform the development of novel motor-cognitive dual-task assessments that account for the role of movement task complexity, current levels of motor competence, and the continuous decision-making inherent in real-world performance environments. Traditional assessments of motor competence have focused on skillfulness using restrictive protocols that decontextualize performance and limit cognitive involvement, while motor-cognitive dual-task assessments have minimized the impacts of movement task complexity and motor competence on cognitive performance. In contrast, our approach enhances the sensitivity of motor-cognitive assessments to individual differences while enabling a more nuanced exploration of the concurrent development of motor and cognitive systems, offering valuable insights for both research and applied settings.

The pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence assesses perceived motor competence in children. Limited validity and reliability evidence exists from the United States. The study aim was to determine indices of construct validity, concurrent validity, and internal consistency obtained from multiple versions of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence in a convenience sample of children living in Southeast Michigan ( n = 254, M age = 9.10 ± 1.23 years, 117 boys). Construct validity was tested via confirmatory factor analysis with hypothesized structures, including locomotor, object control, and active play skills. All variations of construct validity were supported based on fit indices. Concurrent validity was established against results from the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Acceptance for Young Children with results ranging from intraclass correlation coefficient = .66 to .78. Internal consistency was established by reporting Cronbach’s alpha and ranged from α = .51 to .83. Both versions of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence provide similar results and align with previous findings supporting its continued use in children.

Abstract Objective: To examine the predictive strength of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), motor competence (MC), maternal educational status, and parental perception of their children’s favorite leisure activities for meeting physical activity (PA) guidelines of each gender among children aged 3–6 years. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study with 367 preschoolers (53% girls), assessing CRF (PREFIT 20m shuttle run), MC (battery of motor skills), PA (accelerometry), maternal education and parental perception of children’s preferred leisure (questionnaires). Factorial analysis of covariance, multiple logistic regression, and chi-square tests were conducted. Results: In both genders, CRF was associated with meeting PA guidelines (girls: odds ratio [OR] 1.10; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03–1.18; boys: OR 1.12; 95%CI 1.05–1.19), independently of maternal education or parental perception of children’s leisure activities. For girls, active leisure with balls (OR 28.91; 95%CI 6.88–121.50) and without balls (OR 4.32; 95%CI 1.95–9.57) enhanced the odds of compliance with PA guidelines, without effect of maternal education. For boys, maternal education was inversely associated with meeting the PA guidelines. Boys of lower-educated mothers were more likely to have activities with balls as favorite leisure, which was a stronger predictor and enhanced the odds of meeting the guidelines (OR 4.09; 95%CI 1.71–9.79) regardless of maternal education. Boys had a higher prevalence of active leisure with balls than girls (42.8 vs. 7.7%). Conclusions: Regardless of CRF or MC, family and sociocultural circumstances influenced PA according to gender. Health policies should encourage equal gender participation in culturally significant sports or activities of a particular region/country, specifically within the family context.

This study examined the underlying factor structure of the Supine-to-Stand and Go (STS&Go) components (Supine-to-Stand, 2m change of direction speed, 8-m running speed) and potential sex differences. Young adults (N=125, women = 33, M-age = 22.4 years) completed the STS&Go (two trials), and the fastest time (in seconds) was used. Exploratory factor analysis identified the underlying component structure of the STS&Go task, and McDonald's omega measured internal consistency. Welch's t tests compared differences between sexes. Multiple linear regression assessed the utility of the subcomponents in predicting STS&Go performance. STS&Go subcomponents significantly contributed to a single factor (60%), with strong individual factor loadings (.73-.80). Subcomponents demonstrated good internal consistency (omega = 0.82). Men demonstrated faster times than women in all tasks (p < .001). Last, multiple linear regression results indicated that the subcomponents accounted for 92.6% of the variance in performance on the STS&Go task (p<.001). Results demonstrated strong preliminary evidence of construct validity and reliability for the STS&Go task. Assessing STS&Go performance across diverse age groups is a critical next step in demonstrating its developmental validity across the lifespan.

Movement competence (MC) and emotional intelligence (EI) are positively associated and important for child development. Intervention research is needed to determine causal relationships between these outcomes. Gamification is a pedagogical model that may enhance MC and EI, but implementing interventions in schools is complex and requires multi-stakeholder involvement to ensure feasibility, acceptability and sustainability. However, methodological evidence to inform co-development work within physical education (PE) is lacking and further research is required. This study describes the process of co-developing a gamified PE intervention with school stakeholders to increase MC and EI among primary-aged children. A total of 91 children and four classroom teachers from three primary schools participated in a series of co-development workshops. Data from the workshops were thematically analysed and informed the development of three school-specific gamified PE curriculums. Findings from children included: (1) the social and foundational movement skills (FMS) to improve during the intervention; (2) the enjoyable components of PE, which included skill development and social interaction; (3) a desire to include more equipment in PE lessons; and (4) games, activities and gamification strategies to incorporate in the intervention. Findings from teachers included: (1) the barriers and facilitators to implementing a gamified model in PE; (2) the successful components of PE lessons; and (3) the overall development of the intervention. This methodology provides a framework for co-developing PE interventions within a school context. Results provide strategies to operationalise gamification. Future research should explore the feasibility and acceptability of the co-developed interventions to increase MC and EI.

This study evaluated (a) the feasibility and acceptability of a gamified physical education (PE) intervention among 9- to 10-year-old children and (b) intervention effectiveness on emotional intelligence (EI), motor competence (MC), basic psychological needs (BPNs) and motivational regulations. A mixed-method, single-group, pre-post trial was conducted in three primary schools in North West England. Classroom teachers taught a 10-week gamified PE unit (one 60-minute lesson per week). Researcher logs recorded recruitment, retention, adherence and attrition; feasibility and acceptability were assessed via semi-structured teacher interviews ( n = 3) and three focus groups with children ( n = 18). Children completed questionnaires assessing EI, BPNs and motivational regulations. MC was measured with the Körperkoordinationtest für Kinder and the Motor Competence Assessment. Three teachers and 63 children were recruited. Adherence was good (26/30 lessons taught), and participant retention was excellent (0% attrition). Qualitative findings indicated the intervention was feasible and acceptable: lessons were easy to follow, well-structured, inclusive, fun, and promoted teamwork. Challenges were mainly logistical (set-up time and equipment). Improvements were observed from pre- to post-test in EI ( F = 38.02, p < .001), MC ( p < .05), intrinsic motivation in PE ( F = 10.08, p = .002), and identified ( F = 11.84, p < .001) and external regulation ( F = 4.15, p = .046) for physical activity. However, EI outcome measurement posed challenges (child comprehension/scale structure), highlighting the need for child-appropriate tools. Overall, findings support trial feasibility and intervention acceptability, with promising effects, warranting a larger controlled trial.

There is a common assumption that changes in developmental movement patterns (process) leads to better skill outcome performance (product); however, limited longitudinal data evaluate this assumption. This study examined (a) the longitudinal relationship among process and product motor skill scores across early childhood (3.5-6 years) and (b) the extent to which changes in children's process scores (e.g., movement pattern) predicted changes in product scores (e.g., outcome performance) controlling sex and developmental factors of age and anthropometrics. Children (n = 135; M age = 53.4 months) completed a battery of five motor skills (throwing, kicking, standing long jump, running, and hopping), assessed with both process and product scores. The relationship among process and product scores were examined using Spearman rank correlations; longitudinal relationships were examined using linear-mixed models with random intercepts. There were weak to strong correlations in process and product scores (range = .04-.77). Controlling for age, sex, and anthropometrics, there was a small inverse linear relationship between process scores of the hop and hopping speed. These results provide novel insight into motor development performance trends in early childhood. These data challenge traditional assumptions that, in general, longitudinal changes in children's process scores do not necessarily reflect changes in product scores.

In this commentary derived from the authors' keynote at the sixth International Motor Development Research Consortium conference, we propose to go beyond pointing to direct indications in published papers that provide next steps needed to move a field forward, and suggest to recognize the importance of what literature does not directly speak to. We propose to collectively synthesize and integrate research from various lines of inquiry as an indirect way to conceptualize a "next big idea" in our field, broadening and deepening the view on existing knowledge (i.e., speaks to the "infinity within the box"). The focus is on the need to approach the scientific literature on motor development and learning with a historical view to learn from the past what may come next. We derive lessons that point to the importance of motor development to other critical outcome domains and to the need for a broader and more differentiated scope of classification of motor skills, as well as a more ecological and holistic understanding of motor competence and motor-cognitive performance assessment. We conclude by calling for the creation of a large-scale, cross-country data repository to amalgamate the disparate data from the various historical assessments of motor development, also coupled with other developmental outcome domains.

Objective: Effective skill acquisition environments are theorized to foster motor competence, promote vigorous physical activity, and facilitate cognitive development. This study examined the metabolic, motor, and cognitive characteristics of two object projection skill practice conditions, throwing and catching (TC) and kicking and receiving (KR), under both single-and dual-task formats in a diverse youth sample. Methods: Fifty children and adolescents (Mage = 11.6 +/- 3.2 years) completed four skill trials (TC, KR, dual-task TC, and dual-task KR) in a withinsubject crossover design. Metabolic equivalents of task (METs) were measured using indirect calorimetry (COSMED K5). Participants were stratified into quartiles based on skill scores (TC + KR baseline max total). Dependent variables included METs, total repetitions, ball speed, and error rates. Analyses of covariance (covariates: age, gender) assessed between-quartile differences. Results: METs exceeded vigorous thresholds (range = 10.1-11.5 METs) across all conditions. Absolute METs did not differ significantly between quartiles; however, change-from-rest values were highest in the highest performing group, especially in dual-task conditions. Quartile effects were significant for repetitions (p < .01), error rates (p < .001), and ball speed (p < .001), with the higher skilled participants demonstrating better cognitive performance (i.e., low error rates). Conclusion: Ecologically valid object control practice elicits vigorous energy expenditure regardless of skill while differentiating performance by competence. Findings support integrating motor-cognitive practice for holistic youth development.

The purpose of this position paper is to raise awareness of intriguing interdisciplinary intersections among physical activity, motor learning/development, creativity, and cognition. A major intersection is the potential of physical activity that involves the effortful learning of novel and/or complex movement actions to elicit cognitive engagement and influence brain structure and function. Exploring this intersection is meaningful when considering the increasingly holistic understanding of motor learning/development that requires being able to think across boundaries. Indeed, a holistic view means adopting a multidisciplinary approach to address the changes in both motor and nonmotor skill domains triggered by motor learning/development and an interdisciplinary approach to address the interconnected nature of those changes. We see motor skills as having a broader scope, encompassing the functionality and originality that characterize creative movement actions subserved by both deliberate, cognitively demanding and unintentional, sensorimotor processes. To inform practice development, we highlight where physical activity meets creativity: at the crossroad of kinesiology, developmental neuroscience, and pedagogies that embrace an exploration-based, creativity-enhancing approach to motor learning. Finally, we propose how working at this crossroad may allow us to take a transdisciplinary step forward in evolving practices of holistic development promotion that have creative motor skill acquisition at their core.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine comparability between 2 editions of the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-second and TGMD-third edition) on (1) how children's motor skills were categorized as average or below average, and (2) how children are screened for being at-risk for motor delay or with delayed motor skills. Methods: Participants were 226 children (Mage = 53.4 mo, 125 boys). All children completed full TGMD-2 and TGMD-3. Children were classified as average or above (>25th percentile) or below average (<= 25th percentile) and, when applicable, as developmental delay (<= 5th percentile) or at-risk for developmental delay (6-25th percentile). We compared children's classifications across TGMD editions using percent agreement and chi-squared tests. Results: The TGMD-2 and TGMD-3 had moderate agreement when categorizing children as below average (72.2% for total skills, 76.0% for locomotor skills, and 73% for ball skills). The TGMD-3 was significantly more likely to categorize children's motor skill performance as average or above (all P < .01). Conclusion: TGMD-2 and TGMD-3 similarly screen children who demonstrate below average skills (<= 25th percentile), but not for specific skill level classifications, including above average, at-risk for delays, and delayed.

Background: This study investigated the effects of decreased energy availability (EA) and carbohydrate availability (CA) on reproductive and metabolic hormones in male endurance-trained athletes. Methods: Thirteen athletes (age: 26.08 ± 4.3 years; weight: 70.9 ± 6.5 kg; height: 179.9 ± 4.2 cm) participated in two training weeks with varying training volumes (low [LV] and high [HV]). The participants logged their diet and exercise for seven days and provided blood samples to measure hormone levels (Testosterone [T], insulin, leptin, cortisol, and interleukin-6 [IL-6]). Results: Results showed that 46.2% (HV) and 38.5% (LV) of participants were at risk for low EA (≤25 kcal/kg FFM·d-1), while 53.8% (HV) and 69.2% (LV) had low CA (<6 g/kg). Strong positive correlations were found between leptin and body fat percentage (DXABFP) in both weeks (HV: r(11) = 0.88, p < 0.001; LV: r(11) = 0.93, p < 0.001). Moderate correlations were observed between T and DXABFP (r(11) = 0.56, p = 0.05) and negative correlations between leptin and fat intake (r(11) = −0.60, p = 0.03). Regression analyses indicated significant relationships between DXABFP and T (F(1,11) = 4.91, p = 0.049), leptin (HV: F(1,11) = 40.56, p < 0.001; LV: F(1,11) = 74.67, p < 0.001), and cortisol (F(1,11) = 6.69, p = 0.025). Conclusions: These findings suggest that monitoring body composition and macronutrients can be clinically useful for male athletes, especially those without access to blood testing. Ultimately, a greater understanding of health and performance outcomes for male athletes is needed.

Background: The ability to adapt motor skill performance to a variety of conditions is vital to success in physical activity settings. Valid and reliable measurements of motor competence (MC) are critical for understanding its impact on physical health. Many widely used MC assessments evaluate the performance of isolated motor skills, place performers in highly standardized environments, and limit opportunities to adapt performance. Consequently, evaluations of motor skill performance using these tools may not adequately differentiate motor skill levels. Assessing MC in more dynamic performance contexts may enhance the utility of MC measures. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the developmental validity of scores on a combined throwing and catching assessment. Data Collection and Analysis: Data were collected on a convenience sample (n = 873, n(female) = 320, age = 14.7 years +/- 4.2). Participants threw a regulation tennis ball against a wall from a distance three times their standing height and caught it as many times as possible in 30 s. Performers were free to use any throwing pattern (e.g. over/underarm) or task strategy (e.g. speed, trajectory of ball, ball bouncing, one- or two-handed catch). The highest number of catches between two 30-second trials was used for analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the total sample and for males and females separately. Pearson correlations were used to evaluate the relationship between throw-catch assessment (TCA) scores and age. We evaluated the relationship between TCA score, sex, and age via hierarchical regression with TCA score as the dependent variable using three models: (1) Participant sex as the sole predictor, (2) sex and age as predictors, and (3) sex, age, and the quadratic term for age (age(2)). Additionally, we evaluated the reliability of scores on TCA assessment trials via intraclass correlations (ICCs) using a two-way, fixed effects model. Results: The mean TCA score was 11.34 (+/- 5.44; M-females =( )9.18 +/- 4.80, M(males = )12.59 +/- 5.40). Strong relationships were observed between TCA score and age (r = .743, r(females )= .698, r(males )= .746; all significant at p < .001). Significant increases in model fit were observed at each stage of the hierarchical regression (Model 1: R-2( )= .091, p < .01; Model 2: Delta R-2 = .484, p < .01; Model 3: Delta R-2 = .009, p < .01), with the final model indicating significant effects for sex (beta(male )=( )1.95, p < .01), age (beta( )= 2.01, p < .01) and age(2) (beta( )= -.04, p < .01) on TCA score (R-2( )= .584, F-3,869( )= 406.7, p < .001). Finally, there was good reliability between scores on the two TCA trials (ICC = .875, F-872,873( )= 14.97, p < .001). Discussion: These data provide preliminary evidence for the developmental validity of the TCA across childhood to young adulthood. The ability to differentiate skill levels across a wide age-range can enhance the ability to track MC across the lifespan and better understand the relationship between covariates of MC across the lifespan. These data provide support for a MC assessment that can be used by researchers and practitioners to evaluate throwing and catching skill in a swift and ecologically valid way.

Background The World Health Organization recommends a whole-of-school approach to promoting youth physical activity (PA) and there are several examples of this approach internationally. In the United States, the comprehensive school PA program (CSPAP) model serves as the national framework for school-based physical education (PE) and PA. Part of the implementation support structure for a CSPAP is staff involvement. Although there is a growing body of research that examines the CSPAP-related involvement of school staff, few studies have focused on school principals. Principal involvement is critical to the success of school-based PA programming. Investigating principals' CSPAP involvement is a necessary step toward maximizing efforts to leverage CSPAP implementation. This study drew upon social-ecological and biographical perspectives and used a person-centered analytic approach to investigate principals' CSPAP involvement. Purpose Building on recent research using a variable-centered approach to examine school principals' CSPAP involvement in the U.S., the purpose of this study was to examine distinct profiles among these same principals in terms of their CSPAP involvement, social-ecological based perceptions of CSPAPs, and satisfaction with personal experiences in K-12 PE. Methods Stratified random sampling was used to recruit a national sample of 2941 public school principals in the U.S. for participation in an electronic survey that measured CSPAP involvement, social-ecological perceptions (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental), PE satisfaction, and several demographic, background, and school context variables. A total of 291 principals completed the survey. Only data from respondents who indicated their school has a CSPAP (N = 198) were used for this study. Data analysis involved principal component analysis and latent profile analysis. Results All PE satisfaction items were found to be good measures with factor loadings ranging from .879 to .962 and a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of .932 (previous research provided validity and reliability evidence for the CSPAP involvement and social-ecological measures contained in the survey.) The optimal latent profile model included four profiles, which were labeled Average (average scores for all three social-ecological factors), Above Average (above average scores for all three social-ecological factors), Below Average (below average scores for all three social-ecological factors), and Low-Interpersonal (high scores for the intrapersonal and environmental factors and low scores on the interpersonal factor). Latent profiles did not vary significantly on any measured demographic, background, or school context variables. The Kruskal-Wallis test yielded significant differences across the four latent profiles on both PE satisfaction (H-(3) = 24.527, p < .001) and CSPAP involvement (H-(3) = 34.469, p < .001). Conclusion This study supports the idea that there are distinct groups of principals, based on intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental perceptions regarding CSPAP implementation. Additionally, PE satisfaction was an important predictor of latent class membership, which in turn predicted principals' CSPAP involvement. Future interventions to increase principals' CSPAP involvement can incorporate the results of this study to design tailored professional trainings that target appropriate levels of social-ecological influence. Further, even though previous experiences with PE cannot be changed, helping principals understand the value of quality PE programs to whole-child learning and development may be worth exploring as a strategy to bolster CSPAP implementation efforts.