Objective A statewide bowfishing survey of Montana fishing licensees (bowfishers and nonbowfishers, including nonresidents) was conducted to obtain information on values, attitudes, perspectives, and preferences about the sport.Methods The survey, consisting of 45 questions, was administered to a random sample of 4,291 bowfishers and nonbowfishers among Montana licensees drawn from the state's Automated Licensing System: 3,538 (82.5%) were Montana residents, and 753 (17.5%) were nonresidents from neighboring states.Results Among respondents, 11.5% had bowfished in Montana, whereas 88.5% had not. Of those who had bowfished in Montana, 91% were male and 9% were female. The most commonly bowfished waters were Canyon Ferry Reservoir and other reservoirs in the Central District of the state. Eighteen percent of bowfishers rated themselves as advanced, 45% as intermediate, and 37% as beginners. Of the three species groups that bowfishers typically targeted, 97% said Common Carp Cyprinus carpio, 12% said buffalofishes, and 4% said gars. Of the species most often shot, 94% said Common Carp, 4% said buffalofishes, and 1% said gars. None of these species were highly regarded as food. Both bowfishers and nonbowfishers prioritized more intrinsic aspects of their fishing activities (e.g., being outside, spending time with friends) over actual or quantifiable fishing achievements. The ability to shoot fish was also a key factor in satisfaction, however. Respondents overwhelmingly trusted the state management agency to manage bowfishing for native nongame fishes but in general did not support curtailing current opportunities for bowfishing take with regulations.Conclusions Bowfishing in Montana is less popular, with fewer species taken, both native nongame and invasive, than in many other states in the central and lower Mississippi River basin. Management concerns are also fewer than elsewhere and center around (1) potential unlimited take of long-lived buffalofishes Ictiobus spp. (Catostomidae) and possibly other suckers in mixed intentional and unintentional (misidentification) take with Common Carp; and (2) potential unlimited take of Shortnose Gar Lepisosteus platostomus, a rare, localized species in Montana. More information on the fish life histories will aid in sustainable management of bowfishing, provide conservation benefits for native nongame species, and improve the credibility of the sport with nonbowfisher licensees and the general public. This paper surveys Montana anglers regarding their perspectives on the sport of bowfishing. Results are used to assess the status of the sport in Montana and to recommend management actions.

Objective The Missouri River flood of 2011 resulted in the entrainment of Paddlefish Polyodon spathula from above Garrison Dam, a main-stem dam, into the tailrace of the Garrison Reach. A large group of entrained fish (estimated at 3,083 in 2012) remained in the tailrace for several years afterward, not undertaking yearly migrations downriver to Lake Oahe, where feeding and habitat conditions are better. We assessed movements and quantified growth (or weight loss) of individual tailrace Paddlefish from the time of original postflood tagging, as early as 2012 until 2018, and then assessed and quantified upriver movement, growth, maturation, and gonadal fat (energy) reserves of adult Paddlefish following their trap-and-transport repatriation from the Garrison Dam tailrace into Lake Sakakawea and their subsequent recapture upriver in recreational fisheries from 2019 to 2023.Methods Paddlefish were collected with gill nets. Fish were measured for length and weighed at the time of original tagging, in 2018, and upon their subsequent recovery in fisheries. Fish were tagged with individually numbered Monel jaw tags (North Dakota Garrison Reach). Dentary (lower jawbone) sections from harvested fish were collected and aged by established and validated methods.Results Of 57 North Dakota Garrison Reach-tagged fish that were tagged prior to 2018 and recaptured during the 2018 repatriation sampling, 46 fish had lost weight, nine fish had gained weight, one fish showed no change in weight, and one fish lacked adequate weight data. Mean weight dropped from 18.1 kg at original tagging to 15.3 kg in 2018, a highly significant decrease. Subsequently, 12 male and 12 female fish repatriated in 2018 were recaptured in harvest fisheries over the period 2019-2023. Four of the 12 males gained weight, two showed no weight change, and six showed a weight loss. The four males that gained weight each gained more than 0.5 kg/year, whereas only one of the six males that lost weight lost as much as 1.36 kg/year. In contrast, nine females gained weight, one female had no weight change, and two females lost weight. Repatriated Paddlefish participated in spawning-associated movements at similar rates to resident fish. Overall weight gain of repatriated fish was statistically significant for females but not for males.Conclusions Our hypothesis is that imprinting, site fidelity, and evolutionary selection for upriver movement in sexually mature fish played key roles in the observed rigid behavior of the tailrace fish. The break in their familiar life cycle was manifested in the sedentary behavior of tailrace Paddlefish below the dam and their weight loss until repatriation restored their life cycle. Although site fidelity has been found in Paddlefish in several stocks, more research is needed on site fidelity and imprinting for Paddlefish and other native, migratory, nonsalmonid species with life cycles altered by river impoundment. Following a period of flood-induced entrainment, Paddlefish were repatriated from the Garrison Dam tailrace into Lake Sakakawea and subsequently recaptured upriver in recreational fisheries. This study examined the impact of river blockage on Paddlefish movement, growth, and behavior before and after repatriation.

Objective Construction of Fort Peck Reservoir on the Missouri River, Montana, resulted in the creation of the Fort Peck Dredge Cuts (Dredge Cuts), a complex of flooded borrow pits (total area = 219 ha) located immediately below the dam that has become inhabited by 33 fish species, including the Paddlefish Polyodon spathula. We summarized information on growth and size at age at recovery of Dredge Cuts Paddlefish in relation to other Yellowstone-Sakakawea stock Paddlefish tagged and recovered in the Montana and North Dakota recreational snag fisheries. We also summarized the life history of the Dredge Cuts Paddlefish taken in the 2021-2023 bowfisheries and compared the life history of the Dredge Cuts stock component taken by bowfishing with that of the larger Yellowstone-Sakakawea stock component.Methods Paddlefish were jaw-tagged and recovered over a period of more than 30 years at fisheries in Montana and North Dakota. Recovered tagged fish, as well as fish taken from bowfisheries from 2021 to 2023, were compared for growth with other Paddlefish of the Yellowstone-Sakakawea stock with von Bertalanffy growth curves (length versus age and weight versus age).Results Partial exchange of fish occurs between the Dredge Cuts and both the Montana and North Dakota snag fisheries, depending on river flows. Nevertheless, the size at age and ultimate size of Dredge Cuts fish was significantly less in length and weight than for fish rearing in Lake Sakakawea, the Missouri River main-stem reservoir where most Yellowstone-Sakakawea Paddlefish feed.Conclusions This stock component and its unusual bowfishery has led to the Dredge Cuts Paddlefish being viewed as a distinct harvest management unit with a distinct harvest season and tag system from other Yellowstone-Sakakawea stock Paddlefish. The number of bowfishers and their take should be monitored and any large expansion of the fishery avoided until more is known about the Dredge Cuts Paddlefish stock discreteness, abundance, exploitation rates, movements, and spawning success. Paddlefish inhabiting the Fort Peck Dredge Cuts, flooded borrow pits below Fort Peck Dam, support a distinctive bow-and-arrow fishery and are significantly smaller in length and weight than the other Paddlefish in the Missouri River between Fort Peck and Garrison Dams.

Five native fish species, Pallid Sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus, Shovelnose Sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus, Paddlefish Polyodon spathula, Blue Sucker Cycleptus elongatus, and Sauger Sander canadensis, were evaluated with radio telemetry over the period 2015-2018 for their ability to pass Intake Dam, a low-head irrigation diversion dam on the Lower Yellowstone River, Montana, and ascend upriver. The objectives were to (1) quantify frequency and timing of passage success of the five species past Intake Dam; (2) document the choice of passage route past the dam (i.e., over the dam or via a natural side-channel); (3) quantify the extent of upriver movement of fish passing the dam; and (4) interpret species results and differences by synthesizing and reviewing relevant key migration, hydraulic, and ecomorphological studies on these species. All species used both routes (over the dam and the side channel) for upriver passage, but passage success differed greatly among species. Overall upriver passage of Acipenseriform species (sturgeons and Paddlefish) encountering the dam did not exceed 20% over the 4-year study via the two combined possible routes; annual passage rates never exceeded 28.6%. Pallid Sturgeon and Paddlefish primarily used the side-channel. In contrast, the passage rates of Blue Sucker (97.9%) and Sauger (63.3%) encountering the dam were much higher. Blue Sucker almost exclusively passed over the dam; Sauger passage was split between over the dam (42%) and via the side-channel (58%). Multiple (post hoc) comparisons indicated that Yearling Pallid Sturgeon passage success at the dam was significantly lower than other groups of Pallid Sturgeon (i.e., hatchery-reared and wild) as well as all other species. In contrast, Blue Sucker and Sauger passage success was significantly higher than the other species, with Blue Sucker passage success significantly higher than Sauger. Once fish from all five species passed the dam, all fish moved more freely than when below the dam, and passage of fish encountering Gibbs Station, an unimpeded control reach boundary upriver, ranged from 67% to 100% depending on species. Whereas upriver passage past the dam incorporated the two routes, all the downriver passage to below the dam occurred over the dam. The differences among species in their ability to pass the dam, in their passage route (over the dam or side channel) and passage through an unobstructed upriver control reach were related to discharge magnitude, timing, and duration, as well as to life history, ecomorphological, and behavioral differences among species documented in other studies.

For decades, many freshwater fishes native to North America have been written off as “rough fish” and neglected as inconsequential or even scorned if perceived as inimical to traditional gamefish. Across the continent, the exact species included in this category vary but often include members of the families Lepisosteidae, Amiidae, Hiodontidae, Catostomidae, Ictaluridae, and Sciaenidae. The casual or callous treatment of these fishes, although occasionally questioned by diversity-minded scientists and the public for at least a century, has recently come under more widespread scientific scrutiny, as more holistic views of ecosystems and ecosystem-based management are increasingly embraced and implemented. Paradoxically, we are also in an era where increasing technological capabilities have exacerbated the casual disposal of native fishes via bowfishing and other methods, often followed by widespread publicity through social media. Amid this rapid technological evolution, recent scientific studies have identified and highlighted the long lifespans, erratic recruitment, and surprisingly complex stock composition and life histories of many of these neglected fishes. Conservation of these distinctive and fragile taxa has been initiated under the recognition of this life history diversity. As exemplified by the 23 articles in this Special Issue on “Underappreciated Native Fishes of North America and their Management” and highlighted in this introductory article, research on many of these taxa has surged, as has their need for management. Scientific discoveries during this timeframe have redefined our understanding of several of the species and have led to an enlightened appreciation of these fishes and their valuable roles in freshwater ecosystems.

Objective: We investigated if large Paddlefish Polyodon spathula invest in testis weight disproportionately more than smaller males, as expressed by the gonadosomatic index (GSI). The approach was to assess the relation between testis weight F (i.e., the combined weight of both testes) and fish weight W in the expression F = aW(b). The hypothesis was that sperm competition in Paddlefish would be expected (with b > 1) based on observations of several male fish attending a female spawner in a past study in the Osage River, Missouri. Methods: We used a large, three-state data set from three fisheries (Montana, North Dakota, and Oklahoma) to evaluate isometry and allometry in the power function relationship between fish weight and testis weight. Result: All three data sets showed hyperallometric increases in testis weight with fish weight (i.e., b > 1). For Montana males, hyperallometry was greatest (b = 1.56; n = 8798), followed by North Dakota (b = 1.36; n = 8209) and Oklahoma (b = 1.22; n = 9571). Paddlefish from Montana and North Dakota had much lower testis weights through age 18 and much lower fish weights through age 25 than Oklahoma Paddlefish. By ages 17-25, mean male GSI in Oklahoma declined, whereas it remained level at about 1.5 for combined Montana and North Dakota Paddlefish. Throughout their lives, at each age, Montana and North Dakota Paddlefish allocated a higher percentage of their total weight to testis weight and reached a higher asymptotic GSI (GSI(infinity)) than did Oklahoma Paddlefish; GSI(infinity) was 1.50 for Montana fish, 1.44 for North Dakota fish, and 1.26 for Oklahoma fish. Conclusion: Results provide evidence supporting the occurrence sperm competition (i.e., b > 1), as would occur when two or more males compete to fertilize the eggs of a female spawning Paddlefish. Comparisons among species and stocks are made but were limited by an acute shortage of data on male testis weights and other testis characteristics (e.g., sperm size, energy content), and reproductive investment in Paddlefish and most other fishes in other localities.

Age information is central to assessment and management of fish populations. Age information must be reliable to have value, which depends on its quality. Quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) are processes often applied to some aspects of producing age information (e.g., annulus validation). However, we advocate for a more holistic approach which leverages QA/QC measures across all phases of the age information-generating process. Systematic implementation of QA/QC measures in a repetitive process is common in the manufacturing industry where it is known as a quality management system (QMS) but this framework is not well described in the fisheries literature. We designed and implemented a QMS that incorporates QA/QC measures across all phases of fish age information development: Collection, Interpretation, and Distribution. These measures are guided by six principles: Train, Simplify, Validate, Compare, Record, and Improve. In our QMS, the Train, Simplify, and Validate principles are largely guidance for QA measures, while Compare, Record, and Improve guide QC measures. We provide examples of common errors (or sources of error) in each phase, and how the guiding principles in our QMS address these errors. This is a QMS crafted as a holistic approach to managing the quality of fish age information; however, it has broad application as a conceptual framework for other repetitive processes in fisheries.

The extinction of the Chinese paddlefish Psephurus gladius is examined in the context of transnationalism, technology transfer, and the compressing timescape of human activity, not just from the perspective of Psephurus, but also sturgeons and other long-lived, ancient and not-so-ancient declining fish species. Information is presented and questions raised as to why the extinction of Psephurus occurred, what broader transnational and technological trends may have led to it, and what can be learned and done to save the remaining Acipenseriform and other vulnerable species. Despite Psephurus (and its close relatives) surviving through millions of years of evolutionary time, its rapid descent to extinction, a result of a combination of overharvest, dam construction blocking spawning migrations, and pollution, is best understood in a broader geopolitical context of transfer of technologies for river development and use without adequate concurrent introduction of ecological knowledge needed for species persistence. The slowly developing life histories of Psephurus and many other fishes in a rapidly compressing timescape had led to their formerly adaptive life histories becoming maladaptive in the wild. Biologists and managers must start thinking more about what measures must be implemented immediately to maintain biodiversity of these long-lived but now ill-adapted species in the wild in an increasingly human-dominated, timescape-compressed world.

Knowledge of movements, spawning, and reproductive periodicity of paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) is important for their successful management. Thirty gravid female Paddlefish were tagged with acoustic transmitters and their movements tracked in Grand Lake (a 21,000 ha impoundment) and in two tributaries, the Neosho River (NR) and Spring River (SR), northeastern Oklahoma, USA to assess their reproductive periodicity (annual versus non-annual) and their choice of river entered during their upriver spawning migration period (Feb 15 to May 15). Fish seldom occupied the rivers at other times and remained in the reservoir. Telemetered fish commonly used both rivers, with few using only one river each year and none using a single river exclusively over the four year study duration. Although annual spawning was the most common pattern, alternate-year spawning was observed. Over the four-year study, fish demonstrated a slight numerical preference for ascending the NR (96 times) over the SR (88 times), despite anomalously lower discharges in the NR. Results were not inconsistent with two other studies indicating the higher value of the NR over the SR as a paddlefish recruitment river. However, the lack of high flow years on the Neosho River during our study limited our interpretation. In testing hypotheses that pre-spawning fish would enter the river a) with the higher discharge on that day or within four days prior, b) with the greater increase (or lesser decrease) in discharge on that day or within four days prior, none of nine discharge variables investigated were closely related to river choice. Despite some specific instances where high or rising discharge each triggered upriver movements, river choice over the entire Feb 15 to May 15 period as a whole was similar to what would be expected by chance. Entering and exiting the two proximal, low gradient river mouths and lower river sections may have incurred little energetic cost prior to actual spawning.

ObjectiveAlthough bowfishing is legal in all 50 states in the USA, the practice of releasing shot fish is only legal in 8 states. An argument favoring this practice has been that survival of fish after shoot-and-release fishing is high. Bowfishing mortality trials were conducted in 2021-2022 in Lake Texoma, Oklahoma, to quantify shoot-and-release mortality and characterize the mortality via the location of the wound associated with the release of fish shot by bowfishing.MethodsA total of 240 nongame fish were shot by experienced bowfishers with conventional bowfishing equipment and held in convalescent pools, with control fish captured by electrofishing to document short-term mortality up to 5 days.ResultOverall mortality of bowfished fish was 87% versus 0% for control fish. Fish shot in critical areas (head, internal organs, or spine; 78% of total) suffered 96% mortality, whereas fish shot in noncritical areas (dorsal musculature, tail, or fins) experienced 52% mortality. In addition, 13.7% of fish shot were not successfully retrieved. Shot fish were generally older (mean = 19.4 years, range = 3-54) and contained more females (62%) than control fish (mean = 12.5 years, range = 2-39; 37% female), providing evidence that bowfishing can remove individuals of great recruitment value. The shoot-and-release mortality rates in this study, for fish shot in both critical and noncritical areas, exceeded mortality from a wide range of angler catch and release in other studies.ConclusionThe high mortality rate associated with shoot and release observed in this study and as practiced by recreational bowfisheries renders shoot and release inconsistent with scientifically regulated and sustainable bowfisheries for native nongame species. These results provide evidence that the bow and arrow, when aimed at animals, is a weapon that is intended to kill. Bowfishing should realistically be managed as a 100% consumptive (i.e., kill) pursuit in which shoot and release is prohibited and nonretrieval of shot fish is accounted for. Bowfishing is increasing in popularity and is legal in all states in the USA. Based on this short-term study, fish shot with bow and arrow experience high mortality when released. Therefore, bowfishing should be managed as a consumptive pursuit and releasing shot fish should be prohibited.Impact statement

In this paper, we review and synthesize trout management philosophy and policies for Black Hills streams in the states of South Dakota and Wyoming through the roles of hatcheries, fish stocking, and natural production from 1883 to 2023. We identified three specific fisheries management time periods (eras) in the Black Hills: (1) the early management–fry stocking era (pre‐1950), (2) the catchable‐trout stocking era (1950s to mid‐1990s), and (3) the integrated management era (mid‐1990s to present). The first era emphasized juvenile trout stocking, with little evaluation of effectiveness in terms of return to creel. The second era was characterized by greater emphasis on stocking catchable‐sized trout and a substantial increase in hatchery rearing capabilities. In the first two eras, instead of fish stocking being one of many potentially useful tools for managers of Black Hills streams, stocking was the dominant activity—leading and directing fisheries management rather than supporting it. By the third era, trout management began to embody a more encompassing and complex national ideology and philosophy that more fully considered ecology, including habitat improvement, natural reproduction of trout, defining the role of fish stocking, and understanding the relationship of trout to the depauperate native (nongame) fish fauna. We also discuss the three eras in the Black Hills in relation to national trends in trout management. In contrast to many other localities, the lack of any native salmonids and the lack of native game fish species have facilitated the development of valuable, self‐sustaining recreational fisheries in streams that support trout, with less concern for native species than in many areas with harvestable native fish species. The cultural ideology that brought western expansion of settlers to the Black Hills in search of gold, land, freedom, and prosperity was emboldened by a science‐based belief and confidence in technology and industry to rapidly shape lands and waters to improve the human condition. In part, the sculpting and shaping of Mount Rushmore symbolize that ideology. In the context of fisheries management in the Black Hills, the introduction of trout, development of stream fisheries, and investment in hatchery technology to produce catchable trout for an expanding tourist economy also exemplify that prevailing ideology, modulated by improved ecological understanding and an accompanying shift toward a more ecological management philosophy.

Microchemistry of sectioned dentary (lower jaw) bones was used to determine natal river (Neosho, Spring or Elk River) of paddlefish Polyodon spathula (Walbaum) in the economically important snag fishery in Grand Lake, northeastern Oklahoma, and to assess the relative importance of the tributary rivers as sources of recruits to the fishery. Geological differences between the Neosho River and Spring River watersheds resulted in large differences in water strontium:calcium (Sr:Ca) ratios reflected in dentary Sr:Ca for paddlefish from each river. Dentary core Sr:Ca signatures were used to infer natal river for paddlefish harvested over the period 2008-2018. Most harvested fish (87%) were identified as Neosho River origin, and 7% were within the predicted range for Spring River origin (6% undetermined). Relative frequencies of Neosho River and Spring River-origin fish (the latter, all <= 10%) differed among cohorts but did not differ among years, locations or sexes. Results corroborate a sonar survey of spawning substrates that concluded that the Neosho River has higher potential value for paddlefish spawning and recruitment than the Spring River. No evidence of natal river fidelity was found. Results highlight the importance of maintaining habitat conditions and inform harvest management regulations required for paddlefish spawning, recruitment and sustainability.

In this paper, we use world record Paddlefish Polyodon spathula catches to exemplify the origins and management of trophy fisheries and the human motivations involved within a continually compressing timescape of advancing fish finding, harvest capability, and communication and information technologies. Conservation of long-lived species such as Paddlefish, sturgeons (Acipenseridae), or other large species currently challenged by ecological change or habitat losses may be further challenged by the expansion of harvest power through advances in fishing technology in pursuit of trophy fish. Technological evolution may outpace the adaptive abilities of managers to safeguard these fisheries with sensible harvest regulations-often a multi-year, bureaucratic process. Managers must maintain focus on understanding the ecological nuances of these species while proactively developing resilient harvest management frameworks capable of responding to such challenges in a meaningful and timely way. Our paper may be useful for other fisheries professionals involved in management of long-lived, trophy fishes and fisheries.

We used a large, three-state data set to investigate if larger female Paddlefish Polyodon spathula reproduce disproportionately more than smaller females. The approach was to assess the relation between fecundity F, expressed as raw egg weight, and fish weight W, in the expression F = aW(b). We compared results among three fisheries for Paddlefish harvested in the three states and between two stocks and compared results between total fish weight and total raw egg weight with results across taxa presented in other studies. Paddlefish from all three state-managed fisheries (Montana, North Dakota, and Oklahoma) showed hyperallometric increases in fecundity, expressed as raw egg weight, with fish weight (i.e., b > 1). For Montana females, hyperallometry was greatest (b = 1.75; n = 8,487), followed by North Dakota (b = 1.61; n = 9,549) and Oklahoma (b = 1.47; n = 14,294). Paddlefish from Montana and North Dakota in general allocated a lower percentage of their total weight to egg weight (asymptotic gonadosomatic index [GSI(infinity)]) than did Oklahoma Paddlefish (Montana: 21.46%; North Dakota: 20.01%; and Oklahoma: 24.22%). The hyperallometric increases in raw egg weight with fish weight reported here depict only one of several conservation benefits associated with maintaining larger and older fish in the populations. Conclusions about weight-fecundity relationships for a particular species should be considered with an adequate understanding of the complete life history and factors which would affect somatic growth versus fecundity tradeoffs.

In response to lacking information on bowfishing, bowfishers, and management planning nationwide, a survey was sent to 15,000 licensed Oklahoma anglers (bowfishers and non-bowfishers) in 2021. Respondents (n = 1,346) were mainly male (73%) and white (74%), had an annual/5-year license (46%) or a lifetime license (39%), and had an average age of 48 (1,182 respondents provided demographics). Questions to bowfishers gauged the importance of bowfishing compared to other fishing activities; trip frequency and motivation; where, when, and which species were targeted; the utilization of fish taken; and attitudes regarding bowfishing regulations. An estimated 24% of licensed anglers had bowfished before. Bowfishing participation in the previous year had more than doubled (4% in 2018 to 9.1% in 2020). Most (57%) had bowfished for 3 years or less; 49% identified as beginners, 43% identified as intermediate, and 8% identified as advanced. Overall, most bowfishing occurred by day (54%), in early summer (May-July), from shore (49%), and in rivers and streams (67%) or reservoirs (53%). Bowfishers sought carps (85%), gars (74%), and buffalofishes (32%). Bowfishers typically used shot fish for fertilizer or buried them (48%), used them for animal consumption (35%) or human consumption (32%), or returned them to the water (20%). Compared to non-bowfishers, bowfishers reported a wider diversity of acceptable outcomes for fish species taken with any fishing method, particularly the nongame fishes. Most bowfishers (86%) and non-bowfishers (94%) trusted the state management agency to appropriately manage native, nongame fishes. Bowfishers were mixed on their support for or opposition to having bowfishing regulations for these species. Some respondents noted that regulations would result in them bowfishing less (23%) or quitting bowfishing completely (6%). Thirty-two percent of non-bowfishers expressed interest in bowfishing in the future. The results of this survey will be used in Oklahoma and elsewhere to aid in designing sustainable bowfisheries that serve the broader public interest while conserving native, nongame species.

The Sport Fish Restoration Program (SFR) has been a stable and highly successful funding program supporting state fisheries research, propagation, and management activities since its inception in 1950. The expanding sport of bowfishing in the past 2 decades, and research over a comparable time period showing very long lifespans of underappreciated native fish species, opens the door to some new ways to classify, manage, and fund monitoring of these natives under the SFR program, while encouraging sport and commercial take of invasives. Evidence from bowfishing and from changes in angling patterns for some nongame species indicates that the time has come to consider reclassifying underappreciated native species into some form of sport status (entirely separate from non-native invasives) and thereby potentially expanding the scope of species projects financed with SFR funds. Reclassification will also function to upgrade the status of underappreciated native species taken within agencies, with bowfishers and anglers, and with the public. It then opens the door to improved, and necessary, monitoring of inland commercial fisheries (often targeting the same species), an activity which has needed improvement and a reliable funding source for decades. We suggest that our approach is a comparatively straightforward one that is scientifically defensible and implementable within the existing state– federal management jurisdictions and institutions.

Sculpins (family Cottidae) are a group of small nongame fishes, native to Idaho's colder streams, and have value for biodiversity and as indicators of water quality. We analyzed abiotic and biotic data, including habitat characteristics and presence of co-occurring trout and char (family Salmonidae) species, from 115 streams from the northern Idaho Pan-handle to identify the physical characteristics and biotic communities of the streams associated with sculpin presence (or absence) and population density. For comparison. and to determine if the results of the northern dataset could be attributed to the rest of the state, a second dataset from state-wide sampling was also analyzed, as was a subset of both datasets that had no observations of non-native brook trout and rainbow trout. Sculpins were more likely to be present and in higher densities in streams with abundant riffle microhabitats that were mostly free of sediment (identified as Rosgen channel types B, C, and F for northern Idaho and types B and C for the entire state). More sculpins were also found in streams lacking brook trout and rainbow trout. Knowledge of sculpin habitats and the impacts of non-native salmonids may be useful in interpreting water quality evaluations, as well as in improving native fisheries restoration projects and fisheries management for Idaho streams.

Paddlefish Polyodon spathula inhabiting Fort Peck Reservoir and the upper Missouri River, Montana, are members of the northern-most and western-most isolated group of the species. These isolated fish support a recreational, river-based snag fishery on migratory adults. We provide population demographics for the Fort Peck Paddlefish stock, including age structure, growth, reproductive success, recruitment, and population trends developed from creel surveys, adult fish tagging, and reservoir surveys of age-0 and age-1 fish over the period 1992-2020. Of 5,108 fish (2,560 males; 2,558 females), mean annual male age ranged from 18.5 to 21.5 years; mean age of females ranged from 24.3 to 30.8 years. Males did not mature until at least 9-12 years, whereas females did not mature until at least ages 16-19. Females were longer and much heavier than males at a given age and throughout adult life. Males exhibited both annual and biennial spawning, whereas almost no females showed consecutive-year spawning but commonly showed biennial spawning. Annual survival rates estimated from cumulative catch curves were 85% for males and 88% for females. Low counts of age-0 and age-1 fish in the reservoir as well as the modest numbers of young male recruits to the fishery indicate that the Fort Peck stock is characterized by a fairly steady but modest recruitment. This isolated stock continues to be managed as a recreational fishery with harvest while maintaining adult population size, sex, and age structure consistent with its recruitment.

This study reports the first cases of intersex (abnormal development of both male and female reproductive tissues in a gonad) paddlefishPolyodon spathula, an Acipenseriform species of large rivers in the central U.S. and in aquaculture worldwide. Despite a large, multi-decadal data set in Oklahoma, Montana, and North Dakota, intersex development was not observed until 2019, when two individuals were harvested from the Grand Lake/Neosho River stock in Oklahoma. This suggests that intersex development in mid-water, zooplanktivorous paddlefish is rarer than in bottom-dwelling sturgeons for which intersex development is regularly observed. Although contaminants are implicated in causing intersex development in other Acipenseriformes, more investigation is needed.