The growing global population and rising food demand have intensified reliance on chemical fertilizers, leading to soil degradation, environmental pollution, and heavy metal accumulation. As a sustainable alternative, Trichoderma spp. have gained prominence as bioinoculants due to their diverse plant growth-promoting abilities. However, emerging evidence highlights strain-specific variability and regulatory complexity in their beneficial traits, aspects that remain insufficiently addressed in current literature. This review explores the molecular basis of three key mechanisms: (i) indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis through indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA), indole-3-acetamide (IAM), and tryptophan-independent pathways; (ii) phosphate solubilization mediated by phytase, phosphatase, and organic acid production; and (iii) iron (Fe) acquisition through siderophore production, primarily synthesized by nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs). Not all Trichoderma species exhibit the full spectrum of plant growth-promoting traits; while some are efficient in phosphate solubilization, others may primarily contribute through IAA production or siderophore production. Genomic and bioinformatic studies have revealed that T. atroviride, T. asperellum, T. virens, T. harzianum, T. citrinoviride, T. reesei, T. longibrachiatum, and T. koningiopsis harbor putative genes encoding proteins homologous to enzymes associated with IAA production, such as flavin monooxygenase and indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, as well as genes involved in siderophore production, including sidA, sidF, sidL, sidC, sidD, and sidG. However, the genetic and regulatory mechanisms underlying IAA production and phosphate solubilization in Trichoderma remain poorly characterized, with limited genomic information available on genes encoding auxin-related enzymes, phytases, acid phosphatases, and those involved in organic acid biosynthesis. These findings highlight the importance of targeted molecular research to support the development of strain-specific bioformulations that enhance nutrient use efficiency, reduce chemical inputs, and advance sustainable agricultural practices.

Aerides odorata Lour. is an epiphytic orchid with commercial potential due to its intriguing flowers. Nevertheless, the flowering patterns of this species have not been investigated. Flower initiation and development are important for plant reproduction because they mark the transition from vegetative growth to reproductive growth, allowing plants to produce flowers and ultimately, seeds or fruits. Besides, floral initiation and development in orchids differ among various species. This work seeks to observe and document the flowering stages and find the optimal maturity stage for Aerides odorata Lour seed pod, which is crucial for in vitro asymbiotic seed germination. Three orchid plants with 2-3 peduncles each were observed daily over five months, every morning (9:00 a.m.-11:00 a.m.) to record development from spike initiation to full bloom, and subsequently for three months post-pollination until capsule dehiscence. Summarising the information on floral developmental stages involved four main phases: spike formation (considered the first day of the phases), bud initiation, flowering and senescence until seed pod formation. The results showed that approximately twelve significant floral developmental stages were systematically documented, each correlated with time intervals and morphological landmarks. Upon observation, it was noted that each of these species could create a maximum of 22 flower buds per plant. The flower is fully wilted 85 days after being pollinated. In addition, the pollinated flowers transformed into capsules and fully reached maturity after 100 days following pollination. Gaining insight into the floral initiation process in orchid species is crucial for optimising cultivation conditions and promoting successful flowering in these aesthetically pleasing and varied plants..

Studies have demonstrated that the traditional rice cultivated in Sabah, East Malaysia, exhibits substantial genetic diversity and is renowned for its outstanding nutritional content. However, there are limited studies to ascertain the antioxidant activity and composition of biochemical substances in it. The present study evaluates the antioxidant properties of 22 Sabah Traditional Rice varieties, which are classified into pigmented and non-pigmented types. An analysis was performed on 22 Sabah Traditional Rice varieties to determine their Total Phenolic Content (TPC), Total Flavonoid Content (TFC), and DPPH assay. In addition, a metabolic profiling analysis was performed on biochemical substances extracted from a specific rice variety, Beras Perang, which is known for its high levels of TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity. It was observed that pigmented rice possesses high phenolic content, namely Beras Perang and Baragang Merah (semi-polished), with values ranging from 1.300±0.004 to 1.967±0.019 mg GAE/g. For TFC results, Beras Perang, Masuri Hitam and Tadong Biasa (unpolished) showed higher abundance (1.000±0.001, 0.888±0.001 and 0.793±0.003 mg QE/g), respectively. The antioxidant assay results indicate that three varieties, namely Baragang Merah (92.832± 0.651%), Beras Perang (91.916± 0.331%), and Rongguol (91.965± 0.515%) have antioxidant levels exceeding 90%. Beras Perang has the greatest levels of TPC, TFC, and antioxidants. In metabolic profile analysis, Beras Perang contains a specific form of linoleic acid (12-oxo-10Z-octadecenoic acid) which is not present in the negative control. In conclusion, Sabah Traditional Rice exhibits a highly promising antioxidant activity, over 90%, making it a potential candidate for further development as an alternative superfood.

Macodes limii J. J. Wood & A.L. Lamb is a terrestrial jewel orchid native to Sabah, recognised for its sparkling golden-yellow venations, uniformly distributed on its leaves. Despite its high ornamental value, the exploration of the plant’s medicinal potential remains ambiguous. The current study was conducted to gain a fundamental understanding of the metabolite composition and regulation in M. limii plants from two different growing environments: wild and in vitro cultivation, as well as to analyse their phytochemical contents and antioxidant activity. The metabolite profiling of the M . limii plant extracts through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis has tentatively identified compounds from various classes including sugars, carbohydrates, sugar alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, phenolic derivatives and lipid and lipid-like compounds. Subsequently, the multivariate statistical analysis confirmed the existence of significant metabolite variations across distinct growth environments. Notably, the leaf extract derived from wild-grown plants displayed the highest levels of total phenolic and flavonoid content, contributing significantly to its higher antioxidant activity as measured by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The discovery has offered a fundamental understanding of the metabolites in M. limii jewel orchids, indicating that in vitro regenerated plants may represent a viable alternative for further investigating their therapeutic potential, thus helping to alleviate the impact on wild populations.

Cymbidium chloranthum Lindl. is an indigenous orchid native to Sabah and several tropical countries in Asia. The significant horticultural value of orchids has led to many wild orchid species being threatened with extinction due to overcollection and habitat destruction. In this study, an efficient protocol for the in vitro regeneration and mass propagation of this orchid was developed. Protocorms of C. chloranthum were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium containing plant growth regulators (PGRs) such as meta-Topolin (mT) and 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) at concentrations of 0.5 or 1.0 mg/L, and coconut water (CW) at 5 or 10% (v/v). The cultures were incubated at 25±2℃ under 12h of photoperiod. The MS basal medium devoid of any PGRs served as a control. After 90 days of culture, the combination of 0.5 mg/L mT and 0.5 mg/L BAP significantly promoted 2.97±0.53 shoots and 3.83±1.07 roots, respectively. The same treatment also promoted protocorms multiplication with an average production of 2.24±0.55 PLBs. During the acclimatization phase, 66% of the regenerated plants survived. The fully acclimatized plants were reintroduced into their natural habitat in Tenom Orchid Centre. The current approach offers a sustainable way to meet commercial demand while conserving the remarkable species in its natural habitat.

Habitat disturbance and excessive collection of wild orchids from their natural habitat have threatened many orchids species at risk of extinction. In this study, the in vitro regeneration protocol for Macodes limii, a jewel orchid endemic to Sabah was established. The effects of explant source and plant growth regulators (PGRs) including naphthaleneacetic acid, picloram, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 6-benzylaminopurine, kinetin, and thidiazuron on the in vitro regeneration capacity of M. limii plantlets were examined. Both factors showed a significant interaction in promoting axillary shoot formation. Nodal explants from the third and fourth positions cultured with 1.0 mg/L TDZ, induced 95% of shoot regeneration, with an average of three shoots/explant (1.6–1.8 cm of shoot length) after 90 days of culture. The well-developed plantlets went through an acclimatization phase for 60 days with a 60% of survival rate. An inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) marker analysis confirmed the genetic stability of the in vitro regenerated plants to the mother plant. The successfully acclimatized plantlets were finally transferred to Poring Orchid Conservation Centre for reintroduction. The established protocol provides the means for large-scale production of this endemic jewel orchid, as well as a basis for further research aimed at the conservation and genetic improvement of this plant.

A brief orchid diversity study was conducted from 14th to 19th October 2019 in Kadamaian, located northwest of Kinabalu area, through a scientific geographic expedition. A convenience sampling method was employed with only the flowering individuals collected and preserved as herbarium specimens. A total of 58 species and 32 genera were identified during the field visits to the Mount Nopungguk, Melangkap Noriou, Ulu Sungai Melawa, and basecamp site. The finding comprises of 43 epiphytes, 13 terrestrials, and two mycoheterotrophs. Appendicula congesta, Bulbophyllum disjunctum, Dendrobium kiauense, and Goodyera rostellata are species endemic to Borneo found during the expedition along with Crepidium multiflorum, a hyper-endemic species to Kinabalu area. Several rare species which narrowly distributed to primary forest habitat were discovered, including jewel orchids; Cystorchis variegata var. variegata and Anoectochilus geniculatus, and two mycoheterotrophs; Aphyllorchis pallida and Lecanorchis multiflora var. multiflora.

A protocol for in vitro seed germination of Coelogyne asperata Lindl. has been established successfully. Immature seeds from 182 days old capsule were cultured on three different basal media; Murashige and Skoog (MS), Knudson C (KC), and Vacin and Went (VW) and maintained under continuous light at 25 ± 2 ˚C. After 30 days of culture (DAC), more than 90% of seeds were germinated on KC and VW media and about 84% of seeds germinated on MS medium. The incorporation of organic additives, including coconut water, potato homogenate and tomato juice each at 10% (v/v) in KC medium was tested to determine their effect on seed germination of C. asperata. The result revealed that KC basal medium alone without addition of organic additives promoted over 90% of seed germination at 30 DAC. Therefore, the protocol of using standard KC basal medium for C. asperata seeds germination could be suggested for mass propagation and conservation of this wild scented orchid.

Macodes limii J.J. Wood & A.L. Lamb is an endemic jewel orchid of Sabah in Borneo. The species has unique characteristic with high potential to be commercialized as ornamental plant. However, it was understudied due to its scarcity in nature, which can only be found at certain area in Sabah with ultramafic soil. To understand the reproduction biology of this species, the present study was conducted to document the developmental stages of flower and capsule to determine the right harvesting time for further use in seed germination study. Macodes limii was collected from its natural habitat and cultivated ex situ throughout this study. Flower development was recorded starting from inflorescence initiation until full bloom, which took over 54 days to complete. Flower was artificially pollinated, and capsule was produced within 22 days, and harvesting was performed prior to dehiscence. Seeds were aseptically cultured on half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium + 3% (w/v) sucrose, and 29% of seeds were successfully germinated after 24 weeks under continuous dark condition. The current findings are beneficial as a reference to support the conservation efforts of this endemic species.

A preliminary survey of the diversity of gingers (Zingiberaceae) was conducted in Kadamaian, Kota Belud from 14th to 19th October, 2019. Wild ginger species is utilized widely as one of the most important material in traditional medicine among indigenous people of Sabah. However, few of these plant species have been studied for their chemical constituents and beneficial properties. In order to investigate the compound composition, the essential oil from Etlingera brevilabrum, Alpinia nieuwenhuizii and Hornstedtia havilandii were screened. The essential oil was obtained from leaves, stems and rhizomes of the plant through hydro-distillation and analysed for their chemical composition through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The result of this study indicated that the chemical constituents of all three parts for all species are similar; all have terpenoids (monoterpene and sesquiterpene), aldehyde, hydrocarbon, ketone and alcohol in the essential oil extracts. GC-MS analyses of the oils led to the identification of 35 compound constituents from the leaves, stems and rhizomes of E. brevilabrum, which is the highest. Meanwhile, A. nieuwenhuizii displayed 34 chemical compositions from all parts (leaf, stem and rhizome) of the plant. H. havilandii showed the lowest number of volatiles from all plant parts (24 compounds). Monoterpene is dominant in all wild ginger studied, except for rhizome of E. brevilabrum. On the contrary, E. brevilabrum showed sesquiterpene as the most abundant compound in its composition. This shows that the volatile oil composition of wild ginger species is extremely variable. This study provides preliminary key chemical information for evaluating the quality of local wild gingers in Kadamaian, Kota Belud, Sabah.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of fertilizer application and successive harvesting on phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities of Cynodon dactylon , a medicinal Bermuda grass in Sabah (Malaysia). Three fertilizers of two nitrogen concentrations were used in the experiment. The grass was harvested successively three times at five-weeks interval. Grass treated with 25 kg N/ha/month from the first harvest was found to have the highest clipping yield. Successive harvesting decreased the dry matter production of the grass irrespective of N concentration applied. Total saponin and alkaloid contents of the grass were increased by a combination treatment of fertilizer type ´ rate ´ harvesting; total flavonoid content was increased by fertilizer type ´ harvesting treatments; however, total phenolic content was not affected by any of the treatment or combination of the treatments. Both of the antioxidant assays (DPPH and FRAP) indicated that antioxidant activity of the grass was increased by fertilizer rate ´ harvesting treatments. There was a significant correlation found between total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities, suggesting that these two secondary metabolites may contribute to the antioxidant property of the grass. Overall, the obtained data indicated that the described treatments could be used to manipulate the production and accumulation of bioactive compounds of C . dactylon.

In vitro microrhizome induction is considered as an effective tool for high yielding rhizomatous crops. In this study, the effect of sucrose and BAP was examined to establish a suitable protocol for in vitro microrhizome production of Zingiber officinale Rosc. ‘Tambunan’. The in vitro derived plantlets were used as explants and cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium treated with a combination of sucrose and BAP at various concentrations and maintained at 25 ± 2°C with 16 hr of photoperiod. After three months of culture, explant responded well on MS medium supplemented with 60 g/L of sucrose and 6 mg/L of BAP compared to other treatments. This treatment had significantly promoted the highest number of microrhizomes (seven) with a total weight of 2.90 g and a total number of 35 buds. Acclimatization of this microrhizome showed 88% of survivability rate after 21 days with a formation of new shoot and root. The current finding revealed the potential of microrhizomes for large-scale production of healthy planting material to support the ginger industry in this region.

Rhizome buds of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc. ‘Tambunan’) were sterilized and cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of NAA and BAP hormones (1-3 mg/L) to induce shoot multiplication and rooting formation. Shoot formation was first observed on treatment of 3.0 mg/L BAP + 1.0 mg/L NAA after 7 days of culture. This treatment also promote the highest number of proliferated shoots, 6.14 ± 0.91 shootlets per explant, with an average shoot length of 1.69 ± 0.17 cm observed after 10 weeks of culture. Rooting of ginger plantlets were significantly initiated on medium supplemented with 2.0 mg/L NAA. This treatment induced up to 34.40 ± 1.81 roots per explant with an average length of 4.52 ± 0.20 cm after 10 weeks of culture. Plantlets were successfully acclimatized in pot containing medium mixture of sand and clay (1:4) with 64% of survivality after transplanted for 3 weeks.

A simple and efficient growth protocol was develop forDendrobium lowii,an endangered and Borneo’s endemic epiphyte orchid, using four month old protocorms as explant sources produced by asymbiotic seeds germination. Protocorms of Dendrobium lowii were cultured on Knudson C (KC) media supplemented with organic additives (coconut water, tomato juice and banana pulp) or plant growth regulators (NAA, Zeatin and BAP) at different concentrations and observed for protocorm development. Among all organic additives tested, medium containing banana pulp at 25g/L induced the highest growth index value of 593.3 after 240 days of culture. This treatment also promoted 100% production of shoot and 93.3% of root formation compared to other treatments. Addition of 2g/L peptone or 15% (v/v) coconut water had significantly induced 16.7% protocorms proliferation. The supplementation of 6 μM NAA promotes similar responses for growth index of 563.3. The treatment induced up to 86.7% and 83.3% of protocorms forming shoots and roots, respectively. The study also revealed that the addition of 2 or 4 μM of NAA and 4 or 6 μM BAP is suitable for shoot induction, however with poor rooting formation. This finding is important for conservation and horticultural manipulation of the species.

Labisia pumila (BI.) F. Vill (Myrsinaceae) also known as Kacip Fatimah is a medicinal plant with an enormous therapeutics value and used widely for herbal industries in Malaysia. This study reports the induction of globular calli from stem explants of L. pumila var. alata. The embryogenic characteristics of the globular calli were further confirmed by the morphological and histological analyses using the light microscope of sectioned material and scanning electron microscope. Globular callus was induced from stem explants that were pre-treated/un-pretreated with thidiazuron (TDZ) on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 20 µ M 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and various amino acids (glutamine, arginine, proline and leucine) at the concentrations of 0.05, 0.1, 0.25 and 0.5 mM. After six weeks of incubation, explants pre-treated with TDZ induced 100% of globular callus while only friable calli were observed on un-pretreated explants. The addition of amino acids at concentrations between 0.05-0.25 mM enhanced the induction of globular callus. Off all, 0.25 mM leucine provided the highest callus score (5.93±0.12) which produced 31 to 40 globular callus per explant. Double staining test shows the positive reaction to aceto-carmine red (0.5%) in the globular callus indicating the existence of embryogenic nature. Analysis under SEM and histological evaluation has confirmed the embryogenic characteristics with the appearance of isodiametric clump cells containing prominent nuclei. The globular callus is further regenerated to shoot clump, thus, it is suggested that the use of TDZ-pretreatment method with addition of 20 µM 2,4-D and 0.25mM leucine successfully induced embryogenic callus from stem explant of L. pumila var. alata. Copyright © 2015 Penerbit Akademia Baru - All rights reserved

In vitro seed germination has been proven to be the most efficient technique to propagate orchid. The application of this aseptic technique has contributed to conservation of many endangered orchid species. In this study, undehisced capsules of Vanda helvola Blume were collected from Orchid Conservation Centre in Lagud Sebrang Agriculture Park, after 120 days from hand pollination and aseptically cultured on three types of basal media such as Murashige and Skoog (MS), Knudson C (KC) and Vacin and Went (VW). After 90 days of culture, 66.40 ± 4.14% of seeds successfully germinated on KC medium. The effect of organic additives such as tomato juice, coconut water, peptone and yeast extract at different level of concentrations in KC basal medium were also tested on seed germination and seedling development of this native orchid. After 90 days of culture, over 90% of seeds were tremendously germinated on KC medium supplemented with 10% or 15% (v/v) of tomato juice. The incorporation of peptone at 0.1% (w/v) in KC basal media promoted rapid development of protocorm to seedling. Seedlings on this treatment produced an average of three leaves and two roots after 90 days of culture and were successfully acclimatized.

The effects of basal media, complex additives, plant growth regulators and carbon sources on in vitro seed germination and seedling development of Vanda dearei are reported. Immature seeds from four months old capsule were used as plant materials. All cultures were grown under 24h light at 25±2oC. Results showed that seeds cultured on Knudson C (KC) basal medium germinated after 25 days with 63.0±3.2% germination rate followed by half-strength Murashige & Skoog (½MS) (45.4±10.4%) and Vacin and Went (VW) (41.8±4.0%). Addition of 0.5% (w/v) yeast extract significantly enhanced (85.9±0.7%) seed germination and shortened germination time to 23 days. A NAA at 0.1mg/l had similar performance (80.2±20.5%), however, this treatment delayed seed germination and induced necrosis to protocorm development. Sucrose at 1% (w/v) also enhanced seed germination (98.3±2.3%), while glucose and fructose treatments showed moderate effects. For growth and development of protocorms, KC basal media recorded the highest percentage of protocorm with root (37.0±4.3%), mean number of leaf (4.50±1.00) and mean number of roots produced (2.0±0.6) with largest leaf area (3.7x2.3mm) and longest root length (11.7±8.4mm). Addition of 20% (v/v) coconut water significantly improved protocorm development and shoot growth.

In this study, five ecotypes of Bermuda grass (hereafter referred to as Kudat, Sipitang, Tawau, Papar and Beaufort) were evaluated for turfgrass potential. In general trait assessment, the Tawau ecotype was found to be darker green, and had shorter leaf and internodes lengths, while the Beaufort ecotype had shorter shoot length, and the Sipitang ecotype had a higher shoot number. In salt treatment, the Beaufort ecotype (second, Sipitang ecotype) had higher shoot dry weight and lower tissue death. Sipitang ecotype (second, Beaufort ecotype) had higher shoot fresh weight. All ecotypes had similar clipping yield and root fresh weight. In mowing treatment, the Sipitang ecotype (second, Tawau and Papar ecotypes) had higher shoot number. All ecotypes had similar leaf width, root fresh weight and shoot dry weight. In fertilizer treatment, the Sipitang ecotype (second, Kudat ecotype) had higher clipping yield and shoot number. It also had (second, Beaufort ecotype) higher shoot fresh weight and shoot dry weight. All ecotypes had similar root fresh weight. Overall, the results suggested that the Sipitang ecotype is the best among the ecotypes, as it has high shoot number, good environmental stress tolerance and low fertilizer requirement. The Tawau and Beaufort ecotypes are other choices. The Sipitang ecotype, however, could not match the quality of Tifdwarf, a commercial turfgrass used in golf greens. Hence, the good traits of the ecotype indicate that it has other functions other than being used in golf greens. A further study is recommended to test the functional qualities of the Sipitang ecotype to narrow down the practical usage of this ecotype.

A simple and efficient multiplication protocol was develop for Vanda helvola using protocorms produced by seeds germination as explant sources. Protocorms were cultured on Knudson C as a basal medium with addition of alpha-Naphtalene- acetic acid (NAA) or 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) singly or combinations under continuous illumination at 25±2oC for 180 days after culture (DAC). In single hormone study, protocorms were cultured on media supplemented with NAA or BAP (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 mg l-1). At 120 DAC, treatments with NAA or BAP (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg l-1) gave an obvious multiplication rate and were proceed to the next study of hormones combinations. All protocorms were proliferated on all treatments at 180 DAC but varied in number of new protocorms they produced and the time required for the initiation of new protocorms. Proto- corms cultured on a medium containing 2.0 mg l-1 BAP + 0.5 mg l-1 NAA produced the highest percentage of new protocorms (65 ± 20.88%) with an average of 3 ± 0.77 per protocorm at 60 DAC. Production and development of new protocorms increase until 180 DAC with an average 9 ± 2.2 new protocorms produced per explant. First shoot (0.5-1.0 mm) were observed on new protocorms at 60 DAC. After 180 days of culture new protocorms produced two leaves (2-3 mm in length).