Haemonchis is a major health and welfare problem for small ruminants responsible for economic losses through reduced productivity and increased mortality. The in vitro efficacy of Callistemon rigidus was determined against Haemonchus contortus the most important parasite involved in this animal disease. Fresh eggs, infectives larvae (L3) and female’s adult were incubated at room temperature in aqueous and ethanolic extracts of C. rigidus for 24 h; 24 and 48h for effectivity assessment. The PBS used as negative control did not affect the involved developmental stages. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts induced 100 % mortality of female’s adults at 1 mg/mL with LC50 values of 0.067 ± 0.01 mg/mL and 0.067 ± 0.011 mg/mL respectively. The inhibition of eggs hatching rate varied from 12.33±2.08 % to 83.67±2.21 % with LC50 value of 0.351 ± 0.023 mg/mL. While the ethanolic extract inhibited 15.33±1.53% to 100±00% with LC50 value of 0.269 ± 0.005 mg/mL eggs hatching. The larval mortality rates increased from 62.5±9.57 % to 91.66±9.62% for aqueous extract with LC50 value 0.2±0.02 mg/mL and from 78.93±6.53% to 100±00% for ethanolic extract with a corresponding LC 50 value of 0.12±0.01mg/mL. Finaly, this study indicated that C. rigidus possess potential anthelmintic effect and further in vivo study is indispensable to validate its use as alternative anthelmintic against that GIN.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), is a highly contagious viral disease affecting livestock. It is manifested by fever and blisters in the mouth, on the teats, and between the hooves. This study was conducted in the Northern Cameroon, to assess the seroprevalence and economic impact of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in small ruminants. A total of 175 breeders were investigated and 63 serum samples were extracted from small ruminants for to detect antibodies against nonstructural proteins of the foot-and-mouth virus using the ELISA competition technique. The overall morbidity rate of foot-and-mouth disease was 96.13%. The estimated mortality rates were 20.05% in sheep and 24.22% in goats. Young lambs in the Far North had a high rate of morbidity (73.69%) and mortality (35.30%) rates compared to other regions. Total economic losses associated with the disease were high in the North and Far North regions, averaging of 433,526 ± 400,896 FCFA and 386,882 ± 577,742 FCFA respectively. Mortality losses were higher in the Far North, averaging 254 540 ± 391 655 FCFA which differs significantly from the other two regions (P < 0.05). Of the 63 analyzed, 30 were positive, resulting in an overall seroprevalence of 47.61%. The positive sample were susceptible to serotype O of aphtovirus. Due to the significant losses associated with FMD, it is crucial to rigorously implement the national program to combat this disease

In order to determine the prevalence of the main helminth diseases in cattle in the Faro Department (Northern Cameroon), a cross-sectional study was carried out.Data collection took place during the period from June 2025 to September 2025.A total of 200 domestic cattle of different sexes, breeds, and age groups were randomly selected for this study. Fecal samples were collected, and coproscopy was performed using the McMaster technique and the sedimentation method to determine gastrointestinal parasites. A significance level of P=.05 was set for all data analyses. Significance level was set at p-value < .05. Following the examinations, the results showed that three species of gastrointestinal parasites were identified with varying overall average prevalences: F. gigantica (59.98%), P. bovis (46.4%), and Trichostrongylus spp. (52.55%). Average prevalences by location showed that cattle in the Tchamba area were the most heavily infested (58%). Generally, male cattle were most heavily infested with F. gigantica (64.1%) and P. bovis (48.7%), while female cattle were most heavily infested with Trichostrongylus spp. (55.7%). Average prevalences also showed that young cattle (2 months to 2 years old) were the most heavily infected in the four study locations, and that the Namchi breed was the most affected (45.6%).This study shows that helminth infections remain a major problem in animal health. Therefore, it is urgent to take measures to control these helminths in order to prevent enzootic instability.

Onchocerciasis is responsible of a considerable burden of diseases, mainly because of its symptoms: visual impairment, blindness, disfiguring skin lesions, and severe itching, which are the results of the death of microfilariae. Since these infections are predominantly widespread in the poor and developing nations Ivermectin, the current drug of choice, is only microfilaricidal and suboptimal response to it, is increasingly being reported. Adult males of Onchocerca ochengi were incubated in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented of penicillin/streptomicin and plant extract or drugs. Caenorhabditis elegans were incubated at 20°C in NGM-Agar seeded and E. coli OP50 supplemented of plant extract or drugs. Worm mortality was determined biochemically by MTT/formazan colorimetry after 24, 48 and 72 h. Ivermectin and levamisole were used as positive controle. DMSO was the negative control. Acute toxicity on mice (Mus musculus) and phytochemical compounds were also determined. ELE of W. indica was lethal against O. ochengi and C. elegans. O. ocheng was the most sensitive to the extract with LC50. Values between 4.03 ± 0.51 µg/ml and 27.46 ± 0.08 µg/ml. The determination of secondary metabolites has revealed the presence of tannins, phenolic acids, saponins and flavonoids. Saponins (12.39 ± 1.00 mg/g) were the most quantified compound followed by tannins (0.96 ± 0.07 mg GAE/ 100g), phenolic acid (0.51 ± 0.07 mg/g GAE) and flavonoids (0.04 ± 0.07 mg of rutin/ 100g). The acute toxicity results showed that the LD50 is greater than 5000 mg/kg. The data indicate that the plant extract could be used to treat nematode infections even in cases of drug resistance towards established anthelmintic drugs.

Haemonchosis is a disease caused by the blood-sucking nematode Haemonchus contortus. The present study therefore aimed to analyse the phytochemical compounds present in Erigeron floribundus and evaluate the in vitro anthelmintic efficacy of its aqueous and ethanolic extracts on the parasite. Quantification of condensed tannins and flavonoids was carried out using a spectrophotometer with tannic acid and quercetin, respectively. The E. floribundus extracts were obtained by macerating the plant powder in distilled water and ethanol, respectively. The extracts were then filtered, concentrated in a rotary evaporator at 40 °C, and dried. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts were tested on adult female H. contortus, achieving an LC50 of 0.29 ± 0.02 mg/mL and 0.17 ± 0.04 mg/mL, respectively, after a 24-h incubation period. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts were tested on H. contortus L3 larvae after 24 and 48 h of incubation, achieving an LC50 of 1.49 ± 0.28 mg/mL and 0.92 ± 0.17 mg/mL, respectively. The respective inhibitory concentrations (IC50) for egg hatching were 22 ± 0.013 mg/mL and 0.021 ± 0.014 mg/mL for the aqueous and ethanolic extracts. Neither the aqueous nor the ethanolic extract of E. floribundus induced any signs of toxicity in mice at a dose of 3000 mg/kg. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of plant extracts against H. contortus and their potential as an alternative to synthetic anthelmintics. These in vitro results confirm the traditional medicinal use of E. floribundus.

In the present work, an ethanolic extract of A. digitata has been tested in vitro against the bovine parasite Onchocerca ochengi and Caenorhabditis elegans. The both nematods were incubated in different concentrations of the plant extract solubilized in RPMI 1640 supplemented with penicillin/streptomycin (100 U/mL/100µg/mL) and on NGM-agar. Ivermectin, Levamizole were used as the positive controls. The worm viability was determined by MTT/formazan colorimetry method after 24, 48 and 72 h. The oral acute toxicity on rats (60-120g) of the fruit pulp and its phytochemical composition were also assessed. The LC50 values were determined using Probit Analysis and data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The extract was active on macrofilariae of O. ochengi and all C. elegans living strains. On O. ochengi, the LC50 values for ethanolic FPE were 36.01, 12.03 and 5.05 µg/mL respectively after 24, 48 and 72 h. C. elegans strains were sensible to the FPE. The calculated LC50 were 82.08, 60.02 and 49.01 µg/mL for the wild-type; 209.03, 151.21 and 95.61 µg/mL for CB211 strain; 370.10, 224.0.3 and 210.06 for VC722 strain respectively after 24, 48 and 72 h. Among the phytochemical constituents of the fruit pulp tannins (43.88 mg/kg GAE) were the most abundant followed by phenolic acid (21.28 mg/kg GAE), saponins (12.99 mg/kg) and flavonoids (0.07 mg of rutin/100g). The oral acute toxicity of FPE assessed on rats showed that the LD50 was above 5000 mg/kg suggesting no toxicity. The relative organ weights of liver of rats sacrificed for all group varied from to 3.94 ± 0.23g to 12.92 ± 0.61g. The group treated with CCL4 showed the highest values of relative organ weight with a maximum of 12.92 ± 0.61g for males and 12.78 ± 0.54g females. The difference is significant (p-value = 0.001) between the ALAT and ASAT values founded in liver of rats treated with FPE when compared to those treated with CCL4 (carbon tetrachloride), ivermectin and levamisole. However, not significant d

Echinococcosis remains a major neglected zoonosis with limited therapeutic options. Thymol and carvacrol have emerged as experimental anti-echinococcal candidates, yet their mechanistic basis, translational relevance, and major limitations including the absence of clinical evidence remain incompletely defined. This review critically evaluates available evidence on their anti-echinococcal activity, examines proposed mechanisms of action, and identifies key barriers that must be addressed for therapeutic development. A substantial body of experimental research has been conducted to evaluate their efficacy, and this narrative review synthesizes and critically examines available evidence regarding their anti-echinococcal activity and proposed mechanisms of action. Available experimental evidence indicates that both isomers exhibit anti-echinococcal activity in in vitro and in vivo models involving Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato and Echinococcus multilocularis. Their effects are mainly associated with tegumental membrane disruption, accompanied by ultrastructural alterations, while evidence supporting apoptosis-like pathways remains preliminary and incompletely validated. Experimental studies indicate synergistic or additive interactions with albendazole, suggesting possible mechanistic complementarity, although the basis of these interactions remains incompletely defined. Although experimental evidence supports membrane-disruptive and anti-echinococcal activity of thymol and carvacrol, current evidence remains largely preclinical and insufficient for therapeutic translation, particularly in the absence of clinical research data. Major uncertainties including poor aqueous solubility, limited bioavailability, lack of intracystic pharmacokinetic data, methodological heterogeneity, and incompletely validated mechanistic pathways remain unresolved. These monoterpenoid phenols should therefore be regarded as promising experimental candidates rather than clinically translatable agents, pending rigorous preclinical validation.

Like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Cameroon is affected by onchocerciasis. Commonly referred to as 'river blindness', it is a filariasis caused in humans by the parasite Onchocerca volvulus, which is transmitted to its host by a small fly belonging to the genus Simulium, with only the females being blood-feeding and transmitting the infectious larvae during their blood meals. Chronic infection causes itching and disfiguring lesions on the skin, as well as eye lesions that can lead to irreversible blindness. The current intervention strategy relies on mass drug administration (MDA), specifically ivermectin. Despite the efforts made to combat onchocerciasis, it remains a major public health issue and thus constitutes an obstacle to the socio-economic development of affected communities. Indeed, the absence of a macrofilaricide treatment, the inaccessibility of ivermectin for certain community groups, the prohibition of ivermectin for individuals co-infected with the filaria Loa loa, and the emergence of parasite strains resistant to the only available treatment slow down onchocerciasis elimination projects especially in Africa. Another alternative would then be to exploit the pharmacological properties of certain local medicinal plants that have proven effective in traditional medicine, in the treatment of parasitic diseases, particularly filariasis. The general objective of this work was to formulate anthelmintic molecules from local medicinal plants to effectively fight against onchocerciasis. The methanolic, ethanolic, acetonic, and ethyl acetate extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Ageratum conyzoides were tested in vitro on the bovine parasite Onchocerca ochengi. Two ranges of concentrations were used: 0 to 300 µg/mL, then from 300 to 600 µg/mL in RPMI-1640. The results obtained from the tests showed that the methanolic and ethanolic extracts of V. amygdalina roots were the most effective with respective LC50 of 68.52±9.33 and 74.66±3.72 µg/mL. Ivermectin used as a positive control revealed the best anthelmintic activity with a LC50 of 17.782±2.018 µg/mL.

Parasitic nematodes of banana and plantain (Musa spp.) cause losses in crop production and productivity, although most smallholder farmers are unaware of their existence. Knowledge on their species diversity and damage intensity are key to inform effective integrated management strategies. Our main objective was to characterise the parasitic nematodes invading the Musa plant in the studied sites. By using the modified Baermann method, six predominant nematode species were identified and extracted across smallholder backyard, commercial plantation and experimental production systems of the Moungo region. These species were: Radopholus similis, Meloidogyne spp., Helicotylenchus multicinctus, Pratylenchus spp., Hoplolaimus pararobustus and Rotylenchulus reniformis. The density and level of damage was highest in the smallholder backyard with mixed crops compared to the commercial plantation and research production with mono-cropping systems. This was related to the fact that the latter two production systems use integrated nematode control strategies. However, the existence of a complex diversity of nematodes across all the production systems suggest the emergence of resistance to commonly used nematicides or the persistence of migratory endoparasites in the soils of the studied area. Future investigations should focus on effective control measures with accent to detecting resistant species to single or combined nematode management strategies.

Background and objectives:Malaria remains a significant public health burden in sub-Saharan Africa, primarily due to the presence of its primary vector, Anopheles gambiae. The increasing resistance to synthetic insecticides has necessitated the exploration of environmentally friendly alternatives, such as plant-derived bioactive compounds. This study investigated the adulticidal activity of methanolic extracts from the leaves of Senna occidentalis (Fabaceae) and Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae) against A. gambiae, a primary malaria vector, in a laboratory experiment conducted from January to February 2020 at the Entomology Laboratory, University of Ngaoundéré, Adamaoua Region, Cameroon. Methodology and results:The extraction yields were 17.8 % for S. occidentalis and 14.9 % for K. senegalensis. Phytochemical analysis revealed that S. occidentalis leaves contained 21.55 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g of polyphenols and 24.88 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/100 g of flavonoids, whereas K. senegalensis leaves contained 18.34 mg GAE/100 g of polyphenols, 34.34 mg QE/100 g of flavonoids, and 27.56 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/100 g of tannins. Bioassays conducted according to World Health Organization (WHO) protocols demonstrated synergistic insecticidal effects between the extracts against A. gambiae. The lethal concentration (LC50) values were 0.87 g/L for S. occidentalis and 1.07 g/L for K. senegalensis, with half-lethal time (HL50) values of 2 h 48 min and 2 h 14 min, respectively. The most effective combination (S. occidentalis [75 %] + K. senegalensis [25 %]) achieved an LC50 of 0.98 g/L and HL50 of 1 h 45 min. Conclusion and application:These results highlight the potential of S. occidentalis and K. senegalensis extracts as sustainable biocides for controlling A. gambiae ss populations. Their synergistic efficacy and high phytochemical content support further development into eco-friendly vector control tools, aligning with global efforts to combat insecticide resistance.

Anthelmintics used to control haemonchosis in small ruminants have several limitations; the most notable of which are resistance and reinfestation. The aim of this study was to investigate the anthelmintic effect of the hydroethanolic extract of Senegalia senegal (HESS) against the parasite Haemonchus contortus. The hydroethanolic extract was tested in vitro on the various developmental stages of H. contortus and in vivo in goats infested by this parasite. The acute toxicity of HESS was assessed in mice according to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Line 425. HESS inhibited egg hatching with LC50 values=1.51 mg/mL and LC90=2.57 mg/mL; this extract was also lethal with LC50 values=1.25 mg/mL and LC90=1.99 mg/mL on Stage 3 larvae and LC50=1.28 mg/mL and LC90=1.04 mg/mL on adult females; HESS at a dose of 500 mg/kg deparasitized goats, inducing a 91.27% reduction in fecal egg excretion, a 94.73% reduction in parasite load, and a 57.65% reduction in female fertility. The secondary metabolites present in the extract were phenolic compounds, of which tannins (243.12±0.76 mg ECA/gDM) accounted for the majority. HESS at a dose of 2000 mg/kg did not induce any clinical signs of toxicity or mortality in mice. These results would justify the traditional use of S. senegal to control the gastrointestinal strongyle, H. contortus.

Haemonchosis is among the leading nematodosis of ruminants, particularly in sheep, with important economic losses. During the last decades, several approaches using anthelminthic drugs were conducted with a continuously decreasing success. Nowadays, it is well established that Haemonchus contortus is resistant to the three classes of anthelmintics in several countries. Currently, the approaches of grazing management and the use of alternative natural compounds are also implemented to control these infections. The present study aimed to evaluate the activity of the ethanolic extract of the seeds of Cucumis melo on H. contortus. For this purpose, the seeds were extracted in a 70% ethanol solution. The obtained powder was solubilized in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) at various concentrations (0 to 3.75 mg/mL) to which the assessed stages were submitted. The activity (mortality and egg hatching inhibition) was monitored at different time points (0, 12, 18, 24, and 48 h). The extract was active on diverse stages in a concentration-dependent manner. In adult females, a 100% mortality rate was reached after 24h with an LC50 of 0.5 ±0.09 mg/mL, which was significantly weaker than the levamisole control (0.33 ±0.02 mg/mL). The effect on larval migration was similar to the conventional drug effect, with IC50 values of 1.71 ± 0.10 mg/mL and 1.74 ± 0.25 mg/mL, respectively, for extract and levamisole. On larvae, the lethal activity was very similar in the presence of either levamisole or seeds extract, with an IC50 value of 0.86 ± 0.25 mg/mL and 1.19 ± 0.25 mg/mL, respectively. A qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed that the assessed extract contains alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and triterpenes. The hydro-ethanolic extract of the seeds of C. melo did not induce any sign of toxicity in mice at the dose of 2000 mg/kg. Altogether, this extract is a good source of anthelminthic chemical compounds, especially those active on larval migration and egg hatching. Key-Words: Cucumis melo seeds, Anthelminthic, Haemonchus contortus, levamisole.

Background: Drinking water is a vital natural resource whose effective access remains a major concern in sub-Saharan Africa, as in Cameroon, where the majority of the population is confronted with the consumption of untreated water from boreholes or wells that pose as health risks. As a result of this, the integration of biological processes for treating water using a non-toxic natural product; Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera), could be a sustainable alternative for improving the quality of drinking water. The aim of this study was to assess, compared to the one in which of conventional antimicrobials, the antimicrobial effect of M. oleifera seed powder in the treatment of water for potable purpose in Kribi, Ocean Division in the South Region of Cameroon. Material and Methods: An experimental study was conducted from November 2023 to June 2024. Borehole water was collected from four different quarters (one each) in Kribi I and II and transported in a cooler to Yaounde within 24 hours, at the Microbiology Laboratory of the HIMT (Higher Institute of Medical Technology) for analyses. In the laboratory, we cultured these untreated waters, isolated and identified the microorganisms using conventional methods and API20E, and the antimicrobial susceptivity of microorganisms was determined according to disc diffusion methods for antibiotics and antifungals. The contaminated water with confirmed identified microorganisms were later treated with increasing concentrations (0.15 g, 0.25 g and 0.35 g) of M. oleifera seed powder. The antimicrobial activity of the Moringa seed powder was assessed again by calculating the microbiological deduction rate. Results: Four different types of microorganisms were isolated and identified from the borehole water samples, with frequencies of 25% for Escherichia coli, 25% for Staphylococcus aureus, 25% for Candida albicans and 25% for Candida sp. The sensitivity profile demonstrated that E. coli and S. aureus were sensitive to 13.33% and 23.08% respectively of the antibiotics tested, C. albicans and Candida. sp sensitive each to 100% of the antifungals tested. Microbiological activity rates with M. oleifera seed powder varied from 86.7% to 100% for E. coli, 83.34 to 100% for S. aureus, 100% each for Candida sp and C. albicans. Conclusion: Our findings revealed increasing antibacterial and antifungal activities of M. oleifera seed powder after a short settling time, thus demonstrating its importance in improving the quality of drinking water for human consumption and preventing health risks.

Human onchocerciasis is caused by the filarial worm. Onchocerca volvulus is a parasite that forms nodules under the skin. The aim of this work was to assess the nematicidal activities of Aloe vera on Onchocerca ochengi and Caenorahbditis elegans and to determine the phytochemical compounds. Nodules were collected from the umbilical region of infected cattle, dissected and male worms were cultured in RPMI-1640. Worms were incubated with different concentrations of A. vera extracts in RPMI-1640 and M9-buffer. Polyphenol, tannin and flavonoid contents of extract were determined by using gallic acid and rutin as standards. The anthelmintic effect of A. vera extract against O. ochengi was concentration dependent with LC50 of 20.71 µg/mL and 11.75 µg/mL after 48 and 72 h respectively. A. vera extract exerted concentration dependent lethal effects (LC50 = 2747 and LC50 = 31,937 µg/mL) against C. elegans (Wild Type). Methanolic-methylene chloride (MeOH–CH2Cl2) of A. vera extract exhibited high DPPH activity with an IC50 value of 15 µg/mL and 9 µg/mL for ascorbic acid. The highest activity in adult worms was observed with the MeOH (100: 0) and AcOEtMeOH fractions with LC50 values of 12.82 and 15.50 µg/mL respectively. EcOEtMeOH (8:2 v/v) was more effective (LC50 = 250 µg/mL) on WT of C. elegans. A. vera contains polyphenols (1015.05 and AcOEtMeOH = 893.60), flavonoids (25.35 and MeOH = 225.76) and tannins (401.37 and Hex = 788.89). A. vera showed in vitro nematicidal activity against O. ochengi and C. elegans. A. vera could be used as an alternative anthelmintic for onchocerciasis treatment.

Some tannin-rich plants such as Combretum mucronatum and Phyllanthus urinaria are widely used in Africa for the control of parasitic nematodes in both humans and livestock. Tannins have been recognized as an alternative source of anthelmintic therapies, and hence, recent studies have focused on both the hydrolyzable and condensed tannins. These groups of compounds, however, have poor oral bioavailability and are metabolized by gut microbiota into lower molecular weight compounds. The role of these metabolites in the anthelmintic activities of tannins has not been explored yet. This study investigated the effects of fecal metabolism on the anthelmintic potential of procyanidin C1 (PC1) and geraniin and the tannin-enriched extracts of C. mucronatum (CML) and P. urinaria (PUH), which contain these compounds, respectively. Metabolites were formed by anaerobic fermentation of the test compounds and extracts in a fresh human fecal suspension for 0 h, 4 h, and 24 h. Lyophilized samples were tested in vitro against hookworm larvae and whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) larvae obtained from naturally infected human populations in Pru West District, Bono East Region, Ghana, and against the wildtype strain of Caenorhabditis elegans (L4). Both extracts and compounds in the undegraded state exhibited concentration-dependent inhibition of the three nematodes. Their activity, however, significantly decreased upon fecal metabolism. Without fermentation, the proanthocyanidin-rich CML extract was lethal against hookworm L3 (LC50 = 343.5 μg/mL, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 267.5–445.4), T. trichiura L1 (LC50 = 230.1 μg/mL, CI = 198.9–271.2), and C. elegans (LC50 = 1468.1 μg/mL, CI = 990.3–1946.5). PUH, from which the ellagitannin geraniin was isolated, exhibited anthelmintic effects in the unfermented form with LC50 of 300.8 μg/mL (CI = 245.1–374.8) against hookworm L3 and LC50 of 331.6 μg/mL (CI = 290.3–382.5) against T. trichiura L1, but it showed no significant activity against C. elegans L4 larvae at the tested concentrations. Similarly, both compounds, procyanidin C1 and geraniin, lost their activity when metabolized in fecal matter. The activity of geraniin at a concentration of 170 μg/mL against C. elegans significantly declined from 30.4% ± 1.8% to 14.5% ± 1.5% when metabolized for 4 h, whereas that of PC1 decreased from 32.4% ± 2.3% to 8.9% ± 0.9% with similar treatment. There was no significant difference between the anthelmintic actions of metabolites from the structurally different tannin groups. The outcome of this study revealed that the intact bulky structure of tannins (hydrolyzable or condensed) may be required for their anthelmintic action. The fermented products from the gut may not directly contribute toward the inhibition of the larvae of soil-transmitted helminths.

Background Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) infect more than a quarter of the world’s human population. In the absence of vaccines for most animal and human gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN), treatment of infections primarily relies on anthelmintic drugs, while resistance is a growing threat. Therefore, there is a need to find alternatives to current anthelmintic drugs, especially those with novel modes of action. The present work aimed to study the composition and anthelmintic activity of Combretum mucronatum leaf extract (CMLE) by phytochemical analysis and larval migration inhibition assays, respectively. Methods Combretum mucronatum leaves were defatted with petroleum ether and the residue was extracted by ethanol/water (1/1) followed by freeze-drying. The proanthocyanidins and flavonoids were characterized by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). To evaluate the inhibitory activity of this extract, larval migration assays with STH and GIN were performed. For this purpose, infective larvae of the helminths were, if necessary, exsheathed ( Ancylostoma caninum , GIN) and incubated with different concentrations of CMLE. Results CMLE was found to be rich in flavonoids and proanthocyanidins; catechin and epicatechin were therefore quantified for standardization of the extract. Data indicate that CMLE had a significant effect on larval migration. The effect was dose-dependent and higher concentrations (1000 µg/mL) exerted significantly higher larvicidal effect ( P < 0.001) compared with the negative control (1% dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO) and lower concentrations (≤ 100 µg/ml). Infective larvae of Ascaris suum [half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) = 5.5 µg/mL], Trichuris suis (IC 50 = 7.4 µg/mL), and A. caninum (IC 50 = 18.9 µg/mL) were more sensitive to CMLE than that of Toxocara canis (IC 50 = 310.0 µg/mL), while infective larvae of Toxocara cati were largely unaffected (IC 50 > 1000 µg/mL). Likewise, CMLE was active against most infective larvae of soil-transmitted ruminant GIN, except for Cooperia punctata . Trichostrongylus colubriformis was most sensitive to CMLE (IC 50 = 2.1 µg/mL) followed by Cooperia oncophora (IC 50 = 27.6 µg/mL), Ostertagia ostertagi (IC 50 = 48.5 µg/mL), Trichostrongylus axei (IC 50 = 54.7 µg/mL), Haemonchus contortus (IC 50 = 145.6 µg/mL), and Cooperia curticei (IC 50 = 156.6 µg/mL). Conclusions These results indicate that CMLE exhibits promising anthelmintic properties against infective larvae of a large variety of soil-transmitted nematodes. Graphical Abstract

Background: Siphonochilus aethiopicus belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. In Chinese medicine, Zingiberaceae are acknowledged for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which contribute to immune system reinforcement. They are known to promote digestion, alleviate nausea, motion sickness and are involved incombating flu and cold. The current study was conducted to investigate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the methanolic extract of Siphonochilus aethiopicus (MESA). Methodology: The in vivo study examined the anti-inflammatory impact of the extract (75, 150, and 300 mg/kg) using a formaldehyde-induced inflammation mouse model. The anti-arthritic effect of the MESA was determined by measuring paw diameter, body weight, biochemical parameters (C-reactive protein and rheumatoid factor) including oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and nitric oxide), and hematological parameters. Additionally, a histopathological examination was conducted to evaluate the outcome of treatment on tissue integrity. Results: Results obtained show that the MESA significantly decreased paw inflammation (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) and enhanced hematological and biochemical parameters. Additionally, MESA significantly ameliorated oxidative stress parameters (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001). Conclusion: This finding suggests that Siphonochilus aethiopicus possesses strong antioxidant and anti-arthritic activity, supporting its traditional application as a remedy for rheumatoid arthritis.