The purpose of the present paper is to focus on aspects of Andean culture- mesas or shamans’ altars-demonstrating how, in ritual contexts, they effectively express grass-roots cosmological principles. The baseline for this approach was provided by Sharon's (1976) survey of the anthropological literature on Latin American mesas and his suggestion that they often function as projections of indigenous cosmologies (Sharon 1978, 183-196). The current review is an updating of the survey for the Central Andes (Sharon 2006). It includes ethnographic reports from Ecuador, northern Peru, southern Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Although the information will be grouped into a north-south framework this is not meant to imply a causal relationship.

*Una versión anterior de este estudio, enfocado solamente en mesas será publicado en Boletín Chileno de Arte Precolombino. Quisiera agradecer los editores para el permiso de incluir esa publicación en el presente trabajo. ResumenEl propósito del presente trabajo es enfocarse en aspectos de la cultura andina, mesas o altares de chamanes, demostrando cómo, en contextos rituales, expresan principios cosmológicos indígenas. La base de este enfoque fue proporcionada por el estudio de Sharon (1976) de la literatura antropológica sobre las mesas latinoamericanas y su sugerencia de que a menudo funcionan como proyecciones de cosmologías indígenas (Sharon 1978: 183-196).El estudio actual es una actualización de una reseña para los Andes Centrales (Sharon, Ed., 2006). Incluye informes etnográficos del Ecuador, el norte del Perú, el sur del Perú, Bolivia y Chile. Aunque la información se agrupará en un marco norte-sur, esto no implica una relación causal.

The earliest graphic evidence for the Sanpedro cactus occurs in north-coastal Cupisnique Culture (1500–500 BC) with ceramic depictions of the cactus by itself or more frequently associated with felines and stepped volutes. In Chavin Culture (1200–500 BC), the cactus is found in lithic sculpture associated with the “Smiling God.” By Moche times (AD 100–800), Sanpedro is held in the hands of hooded females depicted alone in Moche I and II. By Moche IV there is a proliferation of these females conducting curing ceremonies. An important Sanpedro association in early Moche is with mountains. By Moche IV one ceramic depicts a blood sacrifice at the foot of a five-peaked mountain which recent research has demonstrated to be Cerro Campana, a mountain invoked by contemporary curanderas located midway between Huaca de la Luna in the Moche Valley and Huaca Cao Viejo in the Chicama Valley. Cosmograms at both of these sites are mirror-images of each other. The backgrounds of these painted reliefs include images that may be slices of Sanpedro. In the two reliefs the tripartite structuring of icons expressing a “complementarity of opposites” recurs in Cuzco’s Coricancha cosmogram and the organization of power objects on contemporary curandero altars (mesas). In Lambayeque Culture (AD 800–1100) the hooded female is depicted alone holding Sanpedro. In Chimú Culture (AD. 900–1470) there is a paucity of Sanpedro depictions probably reflecting a divergence of grass-roots curanderismo from a fully-formed state religion, a situation that continues to the present.

The north of Peru represents the "Health Axis" of the Central Andes, with the roots of traditional practices going back to the Cupisnique culture (1000 BC). During a decade of research semi-structured interviews of healers, collectors and sellers of medicinal plants were conducted. Bioassays were carried out to evaluate the effectiveness and toxicity of the plants found. The majority (83%) of the 510 species used were native to Peru. 50% of the plants used in the colonial era disappeared from the pharmacopoeia. In the markets, vendors were grouped: common and exotic plants, plants for common diseases, plants only used by healers, and plants with magical purposes. About 974 preparations with up to 29 ingredients treated 164 conditions. Nearly 65% of the medicinal flora are applied in mixtures. Antibacterial activity was confirmed in most plants used for infections. 24% aqueous extract and 76% ethanol extracts showed toxicity. Traditional methods of preparation take this into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. The growing demand did not increase the significant cultivation of medicinal plants. The majority represent plants collected in nature, causing doubts about the sustainability of trade.The focus of ethnobotanical studies and the participation of local stakeholders have changed a lot in recent decades. From the scientific point of view, the research has gone from simple inventories for example of mainly medicinal plants to detailed quantitative studies, often focused on all useful plants. However, the most important thing is that the research has finally moved away from colonial style research to modern ethnobotany based on the principles of the Nagoya Protocol. This is of great importance for the ethnobiological community. However, these changes have not been the same in all Latin American countries, and there are large regional differences.The objective of this publication is to provide examples of twenty-five years of global research, describing the change of attitude and methodology during that time, highlighting the increasing role of local actors in ethnobotanical research and contributing ideas for the future development of the discipline.With this special issue of Ethnobotany Research and Applications we try to bring 20 years of research in Northern Peru to a wider audience.

El norte de Perú representa la "Eje de la Salud" de los Andes Centrales, con las raíces de las prácticas tradicionales remontandose a la cultura Cupisnique (1000 AC). Durante una década de investigaciones se realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas de curanderos, colectores y vendedores de plantas medicinales. Se ejecutaron bioensayos para evaluar la eficaz y toxicidad de las plantas encontradas. La mayoría (83%) de los 510 especies usadas eran nativos de Perú. El 50% de las plantas utilizadas en la época colonial desaparecieron de la farmacopea. En los mercados se agruparon vendedores de: plantas comunes y exóticas, plantas para enfermedades comunes, plantas solo utilizadas por curanderos, y plantas con fines mágicos. Unos 974 preparaciones con hasta 29 ingredientes trataron 164 afecciones. Casi 65% de la flora medicinal se aplican en mezclas. Se confirmó la actividad antibacteriana en la mayoría de plantas utilizadas para infecciones. El 24% de extracto acuosos y 76% de extractos etanolicos mostraron toxicidad. Los métodos tradicionales de preparación toman este en cuenta al elegir el disolvente apropiado para la preparación de un remedio. La creciente demanda no incrementó el cultivo significativo de plantas medicinales. La mayoría representa plantas recolectadas en la naturaleza, causando dudas sobre la sostenibilidad del comercio.El enfoque de los estudios etnobotánicos y la participación de las partes interesadas locales han cambiado mucho en las últimas décadas. Desde el punto de vista científica, la investigación ha pasado de simples inventarios por ejemplo de plantas principalmente medicinales a estudios cuantitativos detallados, a menudo enfocados en todas las plantas útiles. Sin embargo, lo más importante es que la investigación finalmente se ha alejado de las investigaciones de estilo colonial a la etnobotánica moderna basada en los principios del Protocolo de Nagoya. Esto es de gran importancia para la comunidad etnobiológica. Sin embargo, estos cambios no han sido igual en todos los países Latinoamericanos, y hay grandes diferencias regionales.El objetivo de esta publicación es brindar ejemplos de veinticinco años de investigación global, describiendo el cambio de actitud y metodología durante ese tiempo, destacando el papel cada vez mayor de los actores locales en la investigación etnobotánica y aportando ideas para el desarrollo futuro de la disciplina.Con este número especial de IEthnobotany Research and Applications, intentamos llevar 20 años de investigación en el norte de Perú a una audiencia más amplia.

Traditional medicine is used globally and is of rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. In Uganda, for instance, the ratio of traditional practitioners to the population is between 1:200 and 1:400, while the availability of western doctors is typically 1:20,000 or less. Moreover, doctors are mostly located in cities and other urban areas, and are therefore inaccessible to rural populations. In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses traditional medicine as the primary healthcare system. In Latin America, the WHO Regional Offi ce for the Americas (AMRO/PAHO) reports that 71% of the population in Chile and 40% of the population in Colombia use traditional medicine. In many Asian countries traditional medicine is widely used, even though western medicine is often readily available. In Japan, 60-70% of allopathic doctors prescribe traditional medicines for their patients. In China, traditional medicine accounts for about 40% of all healthcare, and is used to treat roughly 200 million patients annually. The number of visits to providers of Complementary-Alternative Medicine (CAM) now exceeds by far the number of visits to all primary care physicians in the US (WHO 1999a,b, 2002).

RESUMEN Se examino la posible formacion de nuevos componentes en extractos de cuatro mezclas de pares de ocho plantas medicinales: maique (Gaultheria reticulata) - retama (Spartium junceum L.), sauce (Salix chilensis Molina) - capuli (Prunus serotina subsp. capuli (Cav.) McVaugh, mirabilis (Mirabilis jalapa L.) - tiquilia (Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A.T. Richardson, menta (Menta spicata L.) - anis (Pimpinella anisum L.). Para detectar y separar los nuevos componentes de las mezclas, se empleo la cromatografia en capa fina y la cromatografia en capa fina preparativa. Los extractos etanolicos de maique - retama, sauce - capuli y menta - anis y el extracto acuoso de mirabilis - tiquilia mostraron la formacion de nuevos componentes con valores Rf diferentes a los observados en los extractos de las plantas individuales. La actividad antibacteriana de los nuevos componentes contra S. aureus y E. Coli fue determinado con el metodo de difusion en agar. Solamente los nuevos componentes aislados de los extractos etanolicos mostraron actividad antibacteriana. Palabras clave: Mezcla de plantas medicinales, fitoquimica, antibacteriano, cromatografia en capa fina. ABSTRACT The possible formation of new components in extracts made from four two-plant mixtures from eight individual plants was examined: maique ( Gaultheria reticulata ) - retama ( Spartium junceum L . ), sauce ( Salix chilensis Molina) - capuli ( Prunus serotina subsp. capuli (Cav.) McVaugh, mirabilis ( Mirabilis jalapa L.) – tiquilia ( Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A.T. Richardson, menta ( Menta spicata L.) - anis ( Pimpinella anisum L.). To detect and separate the new components of the mixtures, the thin layer and preparative chromatography method was used. For the antibacterial study, the agar diffusion method was used. Ethanolic extracts from maique - retama, sauce - capuli, and anis - menta, and an aqueous extract from mirabilis - tiquilia showed the formation of new components with different Rf values than those observed in the extracts obtained from the individual plants. Antibacterial activity of the new components against S. aureus and E. coli was determined using the agar diffusion method. Only the new components isolated from the ethanol extracts showed antibacterial activity. Key words: Mixed plant remedies, phytochemical, antibacterial, thin layer chromatography.

This paper is the compiltion of a talk given during the "Advanced Topics in Ethnobiology 2013" workshop in Recife, Brazil, under the title "A decade of ethnobotany in Northern Peru - healers and markets, bioassays, paleobotany and considerations of the Nagoya Protocol" Northern Peru represents the "Health Hub" of the Central Andes, with roots going back to traditional practices Cupisnique culture (1000 BC). During almost two decades of research semi-structured interviews with healers, collectors and sellers of medicinal plants, and bioassays to evaluate the effective and plant toxicity were carried out. Most (83%) of the 510 species used were native to Peru. 50% of the plants used in colonial times disappeared from the pharmacopoeia. Common and exotic plants were mostly used for common ailments, while plants with magical purposes were only employed by specialist healers. About 974 preparations with up to 29 ingredients treated 164 conditions. Almost 65% of the medicinal plants were applied in mixtures. Antibacterial activity was confirmed in most plants used for infections. The aqueous extract 24% and 76% ethanolic extracts showed toxicity. Traditional preparation methods take this into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. The increasing demand did not increase the significant cultivation of medicinal plants. Most plants are wild-collected, causing doubts about the sustainability of trade. Dedicated programs aim to establish in-situ collections of important species, as well as to repatriate traditional knowledge in local language, under the guidelines of the Nagoya Protocol.

Bacterial infections and inflammation are among the ailments treated by traditional healers. The World Health Organization has expressed high interest in Traditional Medicine (TM), and it is important to demonstrate scientifically that the remedies employed in folk medicine are indeed therapeutically active. In order to evaluate the antibacterial activity of species used in traditional medicine in Northern Peru, 525 plant samples of at least 405 species were tested in simple agar-bioassays for antibacterial activity under simple laboratory conditions in a private clinic in Trujillo, Peru. Antibacterial activity was investigated against Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach 1884 Escherichia coli (Migula 1895) Castellani & Chalmers 1919, Salmonella enterica Typhi (ex Kauffmann & Edwards 1952) Le Minor & Popoff 1987 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Schröter 1872) Migula 1900. The aim of the study was to scientifically test whether plants used in TM for the treatment of infections showed antibacterial activity, and to delineate a number of candidates for further in-depth study of their Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and toxicity. One-hundred-ninety-three ethanolic extracts and 31 water extracts were active against S. aureus. In twenty-one cases only the water extract showed activity. None of the aqueous extracts were active against the other three bacteria, with the activity of the ethanolic extracts also much reduced, as only 36 showed any activity against E. coli, and 3 each against S. enterica Typhi and P. aeruginosa. Two-hundred twenty-five extracts came from species that are traditionally employed against bacterial infections. One-hundred sixty-six (73.8%) of these were active against at least one bacterium. Of the three-hundred extracts from plants without traditional antibacterial use, only 96 (32%) showed any activity Plants used for respiratory disorders, inflammation/infection, wounds, diarrhea, and to prevent post partum infections were efficacious in 70-88% of the tests. Plants used for “kidney inflammation” had a much lower efficacy against bacteria, and fell within the range of species that are traditionally used to treat other bodily disorders. Resumen Infecciones bacterianas e inflamación se encuentran entre las enfermedades tratadas por curanderos tradicionales. La Organización Mundial de Salud se ha expresada como altamente interesada en la Medicina Tradicional, y es importante demostrar científicamente que los remedios usados en la medicina popular de veras son terapéuticamente activos. En este trabajo evaluamos la propiedad antibacteriana de 525 muestras de plantas medicinales del Perú septentrional de mínimo 405 especies contra Staphylococcus aureus Rosebach 1884 Escherichia coli (Migula 1895) Castellani & Chalmers 1919, Salmonella enterica Typhi (ex Kauffmann & Edwards 1952) Le Minor & Popoff 1987 e Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Schröter 1872) Migula 1900, usando un método de difusión en agar bajo de condiciones simples de laboratorio en Trujillo, Perú. La meta de este estudio fue de científicamente probar si plantas usadas en la Medicina Tradicional para tratar infecciones mostraron actividad antibacteriana, y para delinear candidatos para estudios futuros de Concentración Inhibitoria Mínima y toxicidad. Ciento noventa y tres extractos etanolicos y 31 extractos en agua mostraron actividad en contra de S. aureus. En 21 casos solo los extractos acuosos fueron eficaces. Ninguno de los extractos acuosos tuvo actividad contra las otras bacterias, y solo 36 de los etanolicos mostraron eficaz contra E. coli, y 3 en cada caso contra S. enterica Typhi e P. aeruginosa. Doscientos veinticinco extractos pertenecieron a especies tradicionalmente usadas como antibacterianas. De estos 73.8% fueron activos. De los 300 extractos de plantas no tradicionalmente usadas contra bacterias, solo 32% tuvieron un efecto positive. Plantas usadas para el tratamiento de infecciones respiratorias, inflamación/infección, heridas, diarrea e infecciones después del parto fueron eficaces en 70-88% de los casos. Plantas usadas para inflamaciones de los riñones y otros desordenes tuvieron una eficaz mucho mas baja en contra de bacterias.

Bacterial infections and inflammation are among the ailments treated by traditional healers. The World Health Organization has expressed high interest in traditional medicine, and it is important to demonstrate scientifically that remedies employed in folk medicine are indeed therapeutically active. In this communication, antibacterial assays for 165 plant species conducted under simple laboratory conditions in a private clinic in Trujillo, Peru has been reported. The aim of the study was to scientifically test whether plants used in traditional medicine for the treatment of infections showed antibacterial activity. Extracts of samples of 148 species traditionally used as antibacterial were screened for activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using an agar-diffusion method. In addition, 17 closely related species that were also part of the local pharmacopoeia, but only used for other purposes, were included for comparison. Sixteen species tested as traditional water extract and 96 species extracted in ethanol showed activity against at least one of the bacteria. The study confirms that simple laboratory methods are very well suited to assess the efficacy of traditionally used medicinal plants to inhibit bacterial growth. A comparison to the traditional uses also indicated that local knowledge can give important leads for the development of new treatments. Further tests, especially with regard to toxicity, are needed to verify the safety of the traditional preparations.

Mal aire (bad air), mal viento (bad wind), susto and espanto (fright), mal ojo (evil eye) and envidia (envy) are seen as very common illnesses in Andean society. The Western concept of "psychosomatic disorders" comes closest to characterizing these illnesses. Treatment in many cases involves the participation of the patient in a cleansing ceremony. In addition, patients frequently receive herbal amulets for protection against further evil influences and for good luck. A total of 222 plant species belonging to 172 genera and 78 families were documented and identified as herbal remedies used to treat nervous system problems in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae, followed by Solanaceae and Lamiaceae. The majority of herbal preparations were prepared from the whole plant. In over 60% of the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which differs slightly from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 36% of the remedies were applied orally, while the majority was applied topically. Over 79% of all remedies were prepared as mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit. Little scientific evidence exists to date to prove the efficacy of the species employed as nervous system remedies in Northern Peru. Only 24% of the plants found or related species in the same genus have been studied at all. The information gained on frequently used traditional remedies against nervous system disorders might give some leads for future targets for further analysis in order to develop new drugs addressing nervous system disorders.

This study reports on the chemical compound composition of 78 species of plants traditionally used as medicines on the Northcoast of Peru. This first assay serves as a baseline for more in-depth studies on plant compound composition and serves as back groundto understand and better apply bio-assays results. Key words: Phyto-chemical analysis, medicinal plants, northern Peru. Resumen Este estudio reporta sobre la composicion de compuestos quimicos en 78 plantas tradicionalmente usadas como medicina en laregion de costa norte de Peru. Este ensayo preliminar sirve como base para estudios mas avanzados sobre composicion quimica deplantas medicinales, y tambien como fondo para entender y mejorar bio-ensayos. Palabras clave: Analisis fitoquimico, plantas medicinales, norte del Peru. Introduction The Minority Health International Research TrainingProgram (MHIRT) conducted in cooperation betweenUniversidad Antenor Orrego and Clinica Anticona inTrujillo, Peru and San Diego State University, Universityof California Berkeley and Missouri Botanical garden inthe US, began in the summer of 2005 to explore thebioactivity of medicinal plant species documentedpreviously. Very few studies conducted bioassays onAndean medicinal plants (Neto

The botanical identification of Ulluchu , an iconic fruit frequently depicted in the art of the pre-Columbian Moche culture that flourished from A.D. 100–800 on the Peruvian north coast, has eluded scientists since its documentation in ceramics in the 1930s. Moche fine-line drawings of Ulluchu normally depict seed-pods or seeds floating in the air in sacrificial scenes, associated with runners and messengers or intoxicated priests. It is a grooved, comma-shaped fruit with an enlarged calyx found mainly in fine-line scenes painted on Moche ceramics. The term first appeared without linguistic explanation in the work of pioneer Moche scholar Rafael Larco Hoyle, and the identification of the plant was seen as the largest remaining challenge in current archaebotany at the Peruvian North coast. The name Ulluchu seems to have been coined by Larco. According to his description, the name originated in the Virú River valley, and is supposedly of Mochica origin. However, there is no linguistic evidence that such a term indeed existed in the Mochica or Yunga language. We conclude that Ulluchu can be identified as a group of species of the genus Guarea (Meliaceae) based on morphological characteristics. In addition, the chemical composition of the plant's compounds supports the thesis that it was used in a sacrificial context to improve the extraction of blood from sacrificial victims. We also suggest that a ground preparation of Guarea seeds, when inhaled, may have been used as a hallucinogen. However, more detailed phytochemical research is needed to corroborate the latter hypothesis.

This paper examines the traditional use of medicinal plants in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador, with special focus on the Departments of Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca, and San Martin, and in Loja province, with special focus on the development since the early colonial period. Northern Peru represents the locus of the old Central Andean "Health Axis." The roots of traditional healing practices in this region go as far back as the Cupisnique culture early in the first millennium BC. Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador share the same cultural context and flora but show striking differences in plant use and traditional knowledge. Two hundred fifteen plant species used for medicinal purposes in Ecuador and 510 plant species used for medicinal purposes in Peru were collected, identified,. and their vernacular names, traditional uses, and applications recorded. This number of species indicates that the healers, market vendors, and members of the public interviewed in Peru still have a very high knowledge of plants in their surroundings, which can be seen as a reflection of the knowledge of the population in general. In Ecuador much of the original plant knowledge has already been lost. In Peru, 433 (85%) were Dicotyledons, 46 (9%) Monocotyledons, 21 (4%) Pteridophytes, and 5 (1%) Gymnosperms. Three species of Giartina (Algae) and one species of the Lichen genus Siphula were used. The families best represented were Asteraceae with 69 species, Fabaceae (35), Lamiaceae (25), and Solanaceae (21). Euphorbiaceae had 12 species, and Poaceae and Apiaceae each accounted for 11 species. In Ecuador the families best represented were Asteraceae (32 species), Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Solanaceae (11 species each), and Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Lycopodiaceae (9 species each). One hundred eighty-two (85%) of the species used were Dicotyledons, 20 Monocotyledons (9.3%), 12 ferns (5.5%), and one unidentified lichen was used. Most of the plants used (83%) were native to Peru and Ecuador. Fresh plants, often collected wild, were used in two thirds of all cases in Peru, but in almost 95% of the cases in Ecuador. The most common applications included the ingestion of herb decoctions or the application of plant material as poultices. Although about 50% of the plants in use in the colonial period have disappeared from the popular pharmacopoeia, the overall number of plant species used medicinally has increased in Northern Peru, while Southern Ecuador shows a decline of plant knowledge since colonial times.

Northern Peru is the center of the so-called Andean "health axis,'' where the continuous use of more than 500 medicinal plants has been documented. Local healers as well as patients purchase a large portion of their plants at local markets. While scientific studies of medicinal plants are under way, concern has arisen over the preservation of both the large diversity of medicinal plants and the traditional knowledge of healing methods that accompanies them. To promote further conservation work, this study attempted to document the sources of the most popular and rarest medicinal plants sold at the markets of Trujillo (Mayorista and Hermelinda) and Chiclayo (Modelo and Moshoqueque), as well as to create an inventory of the plants sold in these markets. The present paper reports on the complete market flow from collection to middlemen to vendor from the perspective of an herb collector/vendor. Although prior studies have indicated that at least some plants, mostly introduced species, are grown in home gardens on the coast, this study shows that increasing plant demand in the large coastal markets has not led to significant cultivation of medicinal plants in home gardens. The vast bulk of the plant material sold in the markets of northern Peru consists of plants collected in the wild. Both collection of plants and their transport to the coastal markets require long-distance travel. Low profit margins indicate that the herb trade is very fragile, since collectors might decide to engage in activities that offer higher income or higher turnover. This, coupled with the fact that most plant material is wild-crafted, could easily lead to overharvesting of rare medicinal species in the region.

Bacterial infections and inflammation are among the ailments treated by traditional healers. The World Health Organization has expressed high interest in Traditional Medicine, and it is important to demonstrate scientifically that remedies employed in folk medicine are indeed therapeutically active. In this second communication we report on antibacterial assays for 80 plant species conducted under simple laboratory conditions in a private clinic in Trujillo, Peru. The aim of the study was to scientifically test whether plants used in Traditional Medicine for the treatment of infections showed antibacterial activity. Extracts of samples of 80 species were screened for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using an agar-diffusion method. Two species tested as traditional water extracts and 35 species extracted in ethanol showed activity against at least one of the bacteria. To confirm the results of our first screening, a random sample of the initial species set was re-sampled, and the previous results could be confirmed.

Medicinal plant use in Peru can be tracked back for millennia, and although westernized medicine has become an important factor in the treatment of illnesses, many patients still frequent herbalist shops and retain some herbal knowledge of their own. The present study, undertaken at "Laboratorios Beal," a herbalist practice in Trujillo, Peru, was conducted as a comparison to previous research at Clinica Anticona, a Western style clinic in the same city, to evaluate if patients at a herbal clinic were more likely to use plants for treatment rather than pharmaceuticals, and if their own plant knowledge was more extensive than the knowledge of the patients interviewed at a Western clinic. The results demonstrate that, amongst the patients of the herbal clinic, plants do played only a slightly larger role when compared to the use of pharmaceuticals, indicating that patients at the herbal clinic were as likely to use Western pharmaceuticals as patients at a Western clinic were using herbs, and vise versa. Even at a herbalist shop many patients thought that pharmaceutical medicine to be faster and more effective than herbs, while plants were regarded as safer and free from side-effects. The plant knowledge of individual patients was comparable to the knowledge encountered at a western medicinal facility.El uso de plantas medicinales en el Perú puede ser trazado hacia milenio atrás, y aunque la medicina occidental ha llegado a ser un factor importante en el tratamiento de la enfermedad, todavía muchos pacientes visitan las tiendas de herbolarios y retienen conocimientos propios d las yerbas. El estudio presente, llevado a cabo en "Laboratorios Beal", un consultorio herboristico en Trujillo, Perú, trata de descubrir si las pacientes a tal facilidad usan de preferencia plantas medicinales sobre productos farmacéuticos, y si sus conocimientos de plantas medicinales son más extensivos que los de los clientes de una clínica occidental. Los resultados de nuestro estudio demuestran que, entre los pacientes de la tienda de yerbas, las plantas juegan un papel un poco más grande en comparación con el uso de productos farmacéuticos. Sin embargo, la diferencia es marginal y las preferencias de uso son comparables a esos de una clínica occidental. Por eso aún en la tienda de yerbas muchos pacientes piensan que la medicina farmacéutica es más rápida y efectiva mientras que se consideran a las plantas como más seguras y libre de efectos secundarios. Los conocimientos herborísticos de pacientes individuales son comparable a esos encontrados en una clínica occidental.

The present study was aimed to investigate the activity of plants traditionally used in Northern Peru against acne. Various bacteria, especially Propioniobacterium acnes have been identified as triggering this condition. The normal control of acne in western medicine often causes side effects like skin irritations. Peru has a rich variety of plants that are proven to have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. The study found that Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze), Hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and Corpus Way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) had promising antibacterial properties and efficiency against acne.

Northern Peru represents the center of the Andean "health axis", where the continuous use of more than 500 medicinal plants has been documented. Local healers as well as patients purchase a large part of their plants in local markets. While limited data exist with regard to market inventories, no information has been available on how the plants get to the markets, if they are cultivated or collected in the wild, and what kind of income the collectors receive. The present paper reports on the complete market flow from collection to middlemen to vendor from the perspective of a herb collector/vendor. Herbs were mostly collected wild in the highlands around the city of Cajamarca, and collection as well as transport to the coastal markets required long-distance travel. The average daily net income of the collector varied from US$ 2.80 to 6.45. Even the upper end of this range is hardly sufficient to provide for a family. The low income indicates that the herb trade is very fragile, since collectors might either decide to engage in higher income activities or higher turnover, which could easily lead to over-harvesting of rare medicinal species in the region. Perú Septentrional representa el centro del "eje de salud" andino donde el uso continuo de más de 500 plantas medicinales ha sido documentado. Los curanderos locales y clientes compran una gran parte de sus plantas en los mercados locales. Dado que datos limitados existen en cuanto a inventarios de los mercados, ninguna información ha sido disponible sobre la manera como las plantas llegan a los mercados, si son cultivadas o coleccionadas silvestres y que tipo de remuneración reciben los coleccionistas. El trabajo presente reporta el movimiento completo de la colecta a los medidores y a los vende dores desde la perspectiva de un coleccionista/vendedor de yerbas. En la mayoría de los casos las yerbas fueron coleccionadas silvestres en la sierra en los alrededores de la ciudad de Cajamarca y tanto la colecta como el transporte a los mercados de la costa requirieron viajes de larga distancia. El promedio insumo diario neto de la coleccionista varió entre US$ 2.80 a 6.45. Apenas aun la cifra más alta de este rango sea insuficiente para que una familia puede subsistir. El insumo tan bajo indica que el comercio de yerbas es muy frágil, dado que los coleccionistas podían decidir dedicarse a otras actividades más lucrativas por mayor rendimiento lo que fácilmente podía resultar en la sobre-cosecha de las especies raras de la región.