Purpose: With its six member Networks, Connecting Organisations for Regional Disease Surveillance (CORDS – www.cordsnetwork.org) aims to contain outbreaks at the source and keep communities safe from the spread of infectious diseases in animals and humans. One of its strategies is to promote innovations that strengthen event-based surveillance (EBS) at community level. Supported by a grant from The Rockefeller Foundation, and a collaboration with Ending Pandemics, the CORDS member Networks have started to assess EBS systems and practices, with a focus on cross border sites in selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Southeast Europe, in order to share current collection methods of human and animal health events and identify areas of improvement. Methods & Materials: A mixed methods design was employed. A standardised assessment tool was developed in web and paper-based formats to include quantitative and qualitative indicators to be assessed at national, regional and local levels. The tool assessed multiple domains in relation to EBS systems and processes, data collection tools and sources, event verification and response and inter-sectoral collaboration and cross border surveillance. Supplementary data collection methods of structured interviews with key stakeholders, document reviews and observations were used to obtain information. Networks received online training on the tool and trained data collectors within their Networks. Pre-testing and piloting of the tool was undertaken within Networks and experiences shared at a Network wide meeting. The main implementation phase is currently underway. Results: Fifty-three cross border sites are included in the assessment across 14 countries (Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Israel, Jordan, Palestinian territories, Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia). We present the results of the process of implementing this methodology at a multi-country level and the opportunities and challenges of this approach and potential for scale-up at a wider level. Conclusion: Cross border areas remain particularly at risk from disease outbreaks, however there is poor understanding of EBS practices within these settings. This research provides a standardised methodology to assess EBS systems across regions of the world with a focus on One Health and the use of digital tools.

Canine rabies is endemic in Tanzania probably as a result of low dog vaccination coverage which is set between 10 and 20%. By the use of a model, this study aimed to develop methods for estimating risk of rabies transmission to humans, quantify the risks and make recommendations to minimize them. Data obtained from the Lake Victoria Zone were subjected to analysis by running Monte Carlo simulation using „Simulacion4‟ for 10 000 iterations. The findings suggested that, at a dog vaccination coverage of 10%, the probability of an individual human being dying from rabies following a bite from a rabid dog was 3.76×10-5. With a human population of 8 509 170 million people found in the Lake zone in 2012, this probability corresponded to an estimated 8921 human dog bite cases and 220 human rabies deaths. This corresponded to an annual bite incidence of 104.8 bites/100 000 and an annual death incidence of 2.6 deaths/100 000 respectively. On the basis of extrapolating these data to the whole country, this probability corresponded to 1163 human rabies deaths per year. At a dog vaccination coverage of 70%, the probability of dying from rabies following a bite from a rabid dog reduced to 1.38×10-5. The percent risk reduction was ˃60%. Sensitivity analysis showed that post-exposure prophylaxis had a stronger influence on the risk of dying from rabies compared to dog vaccinations. Correlation analysis showed that the correlation of dog vaccinations and the risk of dying from rabies was significant (r2= 0.95, P=0.0000). Key words: model, vaccination coverage, simulacion, Monte Carlo

A cross-sectional study was conducted between January and July 2014 in Unguja island of Zanzibar to establish prevalence of subclinical mastitis (SCM) in smallholder dairy cows and patterns of antibacterial susceptibility of major mastitis pathogens isolated. A total of 416 dairy cows from 201 farmers were randomly selected from three districts of Unguja Island to participate in the study. Questionnaire interview, field observation, individual cow examination, California Mastitis Test (CMT) and bacteriological examination were carried out. Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion technique was used to test drug sensitivity for common bacteria isolated. Based on CMT results, the overall prevalence of SCM was 28.6, 48.8 and 64.7% at quarter, cow and farm level, respectively. Prevalence of bacterial infection was recorded at 42.9, 70.9 and 78.6% at quarter, cow and farm examined, respectively. The common bacteria isolated included Staphylococcus aureus (36.8%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (17.8%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (16.1%), Klebsiella spp . (9.5%), Micrococcus spp . (6.3%) and Escherichia coli (4.9%). In conclusion, findings of this study demonstrated high level of subclinical mastitis at farms, cows and quarters levels with both contagious and environmental bacterial pathogen involved. Therefore, efforts should be directed to the decreased subclinical mastitis by improving sanitary measures and proper milking practice.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to establish the seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated risk factors in indigenous and exotic breeds of cattle from 178 farms in Mbeya region. A total of 1211 cattle (929exotic cattle from 108 commercial farms and 282 indigenous cattle from 70 traditional farms) were tested for Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) as screening and confirmatory tests, respectively. The overall animal-level seroprevalence was 9.3%; 11.3% (95% CI: 9.4-13.5) in indigenous cattle and 2.8% (95% CI:1.4-5.6) in exotic cattle. Further, the overall herd level seroprevalence was 32.0%; 50.5% (95% CI: 40.9-59.9) in indigenous cattle and 4.2% (95% CI: 1.3-12.4) in exotic cattle. Infections were higher in cattle aged 6-10 years old, (39.8%; 95% CI: 31.2-49.1) followed by those aged 1-5 years (5.8%; 95% CI: 4.8-6.6) and 11-15years old (2.7%; 95% CI: 0.8-8). When compared to cattle sampled from herds size of 1-50, those sampled from the herd sizes of 51-100 and 101-150 had higher odds of brucellosis seropositivity [(OR = 3.6, CI: 1.76-7.16, p < 0.001) and (OR = 3.0, CI: 1.09-8.04, p = 0.033). The odds of seropositivity in animals which calved on pasture was 3.0 (CI: 1.1-7.8, p = 0.028) compared to those that calved at home. Brucella seroprevalence was also observed to vary according to districts, with Mbarari district recording the highest (45.4%). It is evident from the study that Brucellosis is present in Mbarari, Mbeya and Momba districts of Mbeya Region. The findings of this study provide some baseline data that could contribute to the design and implementation of brucellosis control measures in the study areas.

In Tanzania, control of East Coast fever (ECF) has predominantly relied on tick control using acaricides and chemotherapy, little on ECF vaccination, and very little on dissemination regarding animal immunization. In this paper, the prevalence, control measure, and tolerance of Tanzania Shorthorn Zebu (TSHZ) cattle to ECF are reviewed. In addition, the opportunities available for reducing the use of acaricides for the benefit of the farmers in terms of reduction of costs of purchasing acaricides and environmental pollution are described. The tick distribution and epidemiological factors for ECF such as the agro-ecological zones (AEZ), livestock production systems (LPS), strain, and age of the animals are also described. These factors influence the epidemiology of ECF and the distribution of TSHZ strains in different geographic locations of Tanzania. We have further showed that there is a tendency of farmers to select among the strains of TSHZ for animals which can tolerate ticks and ECF and crossbreed them with their local strains with the aim of benefiting from the inherent characteristics of the most tolerant strains. Generally, many strains of TSHZ cattle are tolerant to tick infestation and ECF infection and can be bred to respond to the needs of the people. In this review paper, we recommend that in future, ECF epidemiological studies should account for factors such as livestock production system, agro-climate, breed of animal, tick control strategy, and the dynamic interactions between them. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that an integrated control method involving use of acaricides, immunization, and ECF-tolerant/-resistant animals is required.

This study was conducted to determine tick burden and immunological parameters of resistance to East Coast fever (ECF) in Tarime and Sukuma cattle. Tick load, packed cell volume (PCV), Theileria parva (T. parva) specific antibody percent positivity (PP), and prevalence of T. parva parasites were studied in relation to dipping regime, strains, and season. A total of 50 experimental cattle were included in this study. Tick load was determined by whole body counts, antibody percent positivity was determined by the polymorphic immunodominant molecule (PIM)-based T. parva enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and prevalence of T. parva parasites was detected by a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on the p104 gene. Dipping frequency on tick burden showed no statistically significant differences when cattle of either strain were dipped either once every 2 or 3 weeks in the dry and wet seasons. However, Tarime cattle had higher (p<0.05) tick count than Sukuma cattle and non dipped groups maintained high tick infestation throughout the experimental period. The PCV values were within the physiological range, although this parameter was lower in Tarime cattle (p<0.05). All cattle regardless of strain were seropositive, although Tarime cattle maintained higher PP compared to Sukuma by 15%. Conversely, the prevalence of T. parva parasites was lower in Tarime (38%) compared to Sukuma cattle (38.5%), but the difference was not significant (p>0.05). During the study period, 20% (5/25) of Sukuma cattle contracted ECF, but none of the Tarime cattle showed clinical signs for the disease. The differences between the two strains shown in terms of PP and T. parva parasite prevalence may indicate the ability of individual cattle to resist tick infestation and ECF infection under natural challenge. Higher antibody levels but lower parasite prevalence attained by Tarime cattle, suggests inherent ability of Tarime cattle to resist clinical development of ECF infection, but to remain as T. parva carriers. Key words: Carrier state, Theileria parva, ticks, seropositivity.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute viral disease of small ruminants. The disease was first reported in Tanzania in 2008 when it was confined to the Northern Zone districts bordering Kenya. The present study was carried out to confirm the presence of PPR virus (PPRV) in Tanzania and to establish their phylogenetic relationships. Samples (oculonasal swabs, tissues and whole blood) were obtained from live goats with clinical presentation suggestive of PPR and goats that died naturally in Ngorongoro (Northern Tanzania) and Mvomero (Eastern Tanzania) districts. The clinical signs observed in goats suspected with PPR included fever, dullness, diarrhea, lacrimation, matting of eye lids, purulent oculonasal discharges, cutaneous nodules, erosions on the soft palate and gums and labored breathing. Post mortem findings included pneumonia, congestion of the intestines, and hemorrhages in lymph nodes associated with the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems. PPRV was detected in 21 out of 71 tested animals using primers targeting the nucleoprotein (N) gene. Phylogenetic analysis, based on the N gene, indicated that PPRV obtained from Northern and Eastern Tanzania clustered with PPRV strains of Lineage III, together with PPRV from Sudan and Ethiopia. The findings of this study indicate that there are active PPRV infections in Northern and Eastern Tanzania, suggesting risks for potential spread of PPR in the rest of Tanzania.

A qualitative assessment of the risk of introducing Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) from the south-western Tanzania into Zambia was conducted between November and December 2012 in Mbozi and Kalambo districts in Tanzania and, Mbala and Nakonde districts in Zambia. The study wards and veterinary camps in the participating districts were purposively selected along the Tanzania-Zambia border. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather information pertaining to animal management and disease control from 108 farmers, 11 animal traders and 8 veterinary staff. Emergency preparedness plans for CCPP in Zambia were also evaluated. Cross border movement of animals was notable mainly in Kalambo and Mbala districts which bordered each other. It was reported by 35% of farmers that their animals were not inspected prior to movement despite existence of veterinary regulations. It was also evident that there were no CCPP emergency preparedness plans in Zambia. Review of published information indicated that CCPP was present in 15 regions in Tanzania. Based on study findings, the risk of introducing CCPP into Zambia was rated moderate, whereas the probability of having widespread outbreaks inside Zambia was low. Therefore, the widespread nature of CCPP in Tanzania and the moderate probability of the disease being introduced into Zambia call for the development of a regional CCPP control programme in order to contain the disease in Tanzania and avoid spread into other SADC countries. Keywords : CCPP – qualitative risk assessment – Tanzania – Zambia border

A study was carried out in Kilosa and Gairo districts to identify and characterize animal health constraints as perceived by stakeholders in the beef and milk value chains. A combination of methods was used to collect data, namely, mapping of value chain actors and baseline survey. The baseline survey involved 220 households drawn from 33 villages and 22 wards. Using a structured questionnaire, households were visited to assess awareness and experience of livestock diseases based on observation of clinical cases prevalent in cattle herds. Prevalent diseases as reported by the respondents were East Coast fever (ECF; 88.1%), anaplasmosis (78.0%), heartwater (75.8%) and babesiosis (64.0%). Other animal health problems reported were contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP; 92.6%), calf diarrhoeas (79.9%), trypanosomosis (66.7%), brucellosis (65.3%) and mastitis (60.1%). Further inquiry revealed that health problems perceived to be the most important, in declining order, were: ECF, trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, heartwater, calf diarrhoea, brucellosis and babesiosis. With regard to routine disease control activities, all respondents reported to apply acaricides to control ticks while 90% reported deworming their animals regularly. Although acaricide application was reported to be carried out, tick-borne diseases (TBDs) were still prevalent in the study area. These finding suggest that the current control measures against infectious diseases are ineffective. There is, therefore, a need to have in-depth evaluation of existing disease prevention and control options so that corrective measures can be applied to reverse the situation, which will ensure reduction of morbidities and mortalities associated with infectious diseases. This will contribute to improved livelihoods of pastoral and agro-pastoral farmers predominant in Kilosa and Gairo districts. Key words : disease control, tick-borne disease, pastoral, agro-pastoral, Kilosa and Gairo districts

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an acute zoonotic viral disease of domestic ruminants in mainland Africa and Madagascar. The disease may exist in non-clinical form in apparently health animals. This study was designed to investigate the existence and spatial distribution of non-clinical form of RVF virus (RVFV) activity in wild and domestic animals in six districts in northern Tanzania. A retrospective cross-sectional study involved testing a total of 285 and 100 serum samples from domestic ruminants and wildlife species, respectively. The samples were subjected to IgG and IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) as well as to the Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). Based on ELISA test, the seroprevalence of RVF-specific IgG antibodies was: African buffalo (40.9%, n=22), African elephant (33.3%, n=3), cattle (11.8%, n=93), sheep (11.3%, n=97) and goats (8.4%, n=95). Two serum samples from goats tested positive for IgM. All samples tested were RVFV-negative based on RT-PCR test. The highest intravillage sero-prevalence of IgG was observed in two villages (Kimotorok and Lormorije) of Simanjiro district. Domestic ruminants from herds that were located at an elevation below 1000m were at higher risk (OR=2.32, 95% CI 1.05 – 5.16, p=0.04) of RVFV infection. Findings of the current study indicate existence of a wide range of domestic and wildlife hosts which could serve as potential reservoirs of RVFV during inter-epidemic period. This calls for adoption of one health approach in responding to RVF epidemics as well as during implementation of RVF controlling measures with the ultimate goal of eradicating RVF in Tanzania. Key words : Rift Valley fever, inter–epidemic period, seropositivity, spatial distribution, ruminants, Tanzania.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from July to September 2010 to establish the prevalence of mastitis in smallholder dairy cattle in Pemba Island. The study also assessed factors contributing towards the increased occurrence of bovine mastitis in those dairy farms. Simple structured questionnaire survey, California Mastitis Test (CMT) and bacteriological culture were carried out to determine the magnitude and risk factors of clinical mastitis (CM) and subclical mastitis (SCM) on 93 dairy households randomly selected from four districts of Pemba. A total of 643 milk samples from 163 lactating dairy cows were tested. The prevalence of clinical mastitis (CM) at farm level was 45.2% while at cow level was 31.3%. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis as defined by CMT was 66.7% at farm level, 55.8% at cow level and 34.4% at quarter level. The prevalence of intramammary infection based on bacterial isolation was 68.4%, 56.86% and 35.7% at farm, cow and quarter level respectively. Herd size, number of lactating cows, age of the cow, lactation stage and amount of milk produced per cow per day and number of parity were the risk factors identified to influence the prevalence of both clinical and subclinical mastitis. Mastitis pathogens isolated from 429 milk samples submitted for bacteriological culture include Staphylococcus epidermidis (71.5%), Staphylococcus aureus (7.2%), Streptococcus spp . (1.3%), Klebsiella spp . (5.2%) and Escherichia coli (6.5%). The findings revealed that the prevalence of both clinical and subclinical mastitis in smallholder dairy cattle in Pemba Island is high and appropriate control measures need to be devised. Keywords : crossbred dairy cow, risk factors, smallholder dairy farmers, udder infection.

This cross sectional study measured the prevalence of Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) in textile industries in Dar Es Salaam city and Morogoro municipality. Data were collected from 125 employees randomly selected from each of the textile factory mill in each region through structured questionnaires and audiogram studies. The data were statistically analysed using Epi info 7 package. Descriptive analysis was done to derive the prevalence of NIHL among the employees regardless of their exposure status. A logistic regression test was used to intepret results. Noise sampling was also done in each section and the outcome compared to the Tanzania Bureau of Standards requirements for workplace noise. The findings indicates that the overall prevalence of NIHL is 17.6% (95% CI 13.1-22.9%, n=250). The prevalence in Morogoro was 19.2% (n=125) and in Dar Es Salaam was 16% (n=125). Noise levels in the factory was also found to be above the allowable limits (85 to 99 dBA). It was also found that the privatisation of textile mills in Tanzania hugely affected their performance and thus there is a need to explore more the health of the workers and keep their records even when there is transfer of ownership as well as career change. KEYWORDS : Noise induced, Hearing loss, Prevalence, Textiles

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess milk quality supplied to collection centres in Bagamoyo and Kisarawe districts in Pwani region between February and May 2012. A total of 186 milk samples were collected during starting of the rainy season (February to March, n=95) and towards the end of the rainy season (April to May, n=91). Total bacterial count (TBC) and Coliform counts (TCC) were established and used as indicators of microbial contamination of the milk. Presence of antibiotic residues was also determined qualitatively using the Delvotest kit. Questionnaires were administered to 93 suppliers of milk sold at the collection centres to identify management factors which may influence milk quality. Overall results indicated that ony10.2% and 14% of the tested milk samples would qualify as grade I milk based on TBC and TCC, respectively, both parameters being significantly different between districts and between start and end of the rainy season. Least Square Means indicated source of water used for sanitation to have significant effect on TBC and type of storage containers to have significant effect on TCC. Twenty one percent of the milk samples tested had antibiotic residues and there was no significant difference between districts and seasons. It is concluded that milk supplied to the collection centres in Pwani region is of poor quality and could pose public health risks to consumers. Interventions to address these problems are required. Key words : Antibiotic residues, Total bacterial counts, Coliform counts, Public health significance

A value chain analysis of beef sub-sector was carried out in Kilosa and Gairo Districts in order to address weak-links in the chain. Stakeholder mapping and analysis, baseline data collection and stakeholders’ workshop were conducted. Results indicate that the beef value chain has various actors among them: pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, service providers, small, medium and large livestock traders and live animal transporters. Others are market masters, slaughterhouse operators, meat transporters, meat shop operators and consumers. Mobile phone service was noted to effectively link various actors along the value chain. The producers in Kilosa and Gairo are feeding into within the district, region, Dar es Salaam; and the export market. There are relatively few female actors along the beef value chain, mostly in processing and retail offal business, input supply and one case in Dar es Salaam where three women are operating a slaughter slab. Feeds and water availability particularly during the dry season; and animal diseases were reported as major production constraints impacting on quantity and quality of beef produced. Analysis of value chain governance revealed that retailing butcher shops are receiving relatively a larger share (30%) of the overall price compared to the rest of actors in the strand. Furthermore, findings show that the supply chain is characterized by low value addition among the pastoralist and high value addition among the feedlot operators and large scale processors. Weak links that require immediate attention include: animal diseases and non-use of standard weight measures during selling of live cattle. Key words : Actors, agro pastoralist, pastoralist, producers, supply chain, traders

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) caused by Mycobacterium bovis is an important zoonosis that affects uman, wildlife and livestock. A cross sectional study was carried out between December 2012 and January 2013 to establish the prevalence of bTB and the associated risk factors among ive and slaughter indigenous cattle in Gairo district of Morogoro region. Diagnosis of bTB was based on bovine gamma interferon blood based assay (BOVIGAM ® ) in live animals n=370) while that in slaughter cattle (n=50) was based on enhanced meat inspection. questionnaire survey was conducted among the livestock keepers (n=17) and abattoir workers (n=11) to asses awareness on risk factors associated with bTB. Out of 370 live cattle tested 11 (3.0%) were bTB positive and the reactors were from 38.1% of 21 herds tested. The prevalence of bTB based on enhanced meat inspection was 2.0%. Questionnaire survey among the livestock keepers and abattoir workers in Gairo district indicated limited knowledge on bTB risk factors such as uncontrolled animal movements, bTB control education, sharing communal grazing grounds, public health and contact of wild and domestic animals. The results of this study provide epidemiological status of bTB in Gairo district which is an important tool for its control. It is recommended that, control strategies for bTB in Gairo district be put in place. Key words : bTB, Bovigam ® , Enhanced meat inspection, Indigenous cattle, Gairo district

A rapid situation analysis was conducted in Kibaha and Ngorongoro districts in Tanzania to map resources as well as analysing emergency preparedness to infectious diseases in animal (domestic and wild) and human populations. Kibaha was chosen as a district close to a commercial city (Dar es Salaam) while Ngorongoro represented a remote, border district with high interactions between humans, domestic and wild animals. In this study, data on resources and personnel as well as emergency preparedness were collected from all wards (n = 22), human health facilities (n = 40) and livestock facilities in the two districts using interview checklists and questionnaires. Descriptive statistics for resources were calculated and mapped by district. Kibaha district had a higher human population density, more health workers, better equipped health facilities and better communication and transport systems. On the other hand, Ngorongoro had a higher population of livestock and more animal health facilities but a poorer ratio of animal health workers to livestock. The average ratio of health personnel to population in catchment areas of the health facilities was 1:147 (range of 1:17−1:1200). The ratio of personnel to human population was significantly higher in Kibaha (1:95) than in Ngorongoro (1:203) district (p = 0 < 0.001). Considering the limited resources available to both human and animal health sectors and their different strengths and weaknesses there are opportunities for greater collaboration and resource-sharing between human and animal health for improved surveillance and emergency-preparedness.

Eighteen microsatellite loci were isolated from the Hemimerus vosseleri earwig, an insect species endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains, and that lives on African Giant Pouched Rat ( Cricetomys gambianus ). Alleles ranged between two and 12 per locus, with expected heterozygosity ranging from 0.185 to 0.883 and observed heterozygosity ranging from 0.200 to 0.750. Fifteen of 18 loci were polymorphic. These microsatellite markers will be used to study the population structure of Hemimerus vosseleri among different rat hosts, which will likely enhance the conservation of this unique and unusual rodent-insect partnership.