Chapter 16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorIngrid Udd Scheel, Ingrid Udd Scheel Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorIngrid Udd Scheel, Ingrid Udd Scheel Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorWilliam B. Spillman Jr., William B. Spillman Jr. Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 05 April 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119678892.ch16 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Summary Perhaps more strongly than any other fiber optic component, the fiber grating has found its way into widespread application in both the telecommunication and the sensor field. Specialized chirped fiber gratings have been used to support dispersion compensation over long telecommunication links, greatly extending the effective range of high-speed data links. Fiber gratings also have the advantages of being extremely compatible with multiplexing and distributed sensing capabilities that are orders of magnitude superior to electrical sensors. This chapter provides an overview of optical fiber Bragg grating sensors to measure single and multi-axis strain, pressure, temperature, moisture, vibration, acoustics, and other environmental parameters. It describes different configurations and focuses on the role fiber optic sensors play in composite structure health monitoring, aerospace, civil structure, and environmental monitoring. The chapter also provides the reader with an understanding of some of the fundamentals that are needed to successfully apply fiber grating sensor technology. REFERENCES K. O. Hill , Y. Fujii , D. C. Johnson and B. S. Kawasaki , Photo-sensitivity in optical fiber waveguides: application to reflection filter applications , Appl. Phys. Lett. 32 , 647 ( 1978 ). 10.1063/1.89881 Web of Science®Google Scholar F. P. Payne , Photorefractive gratings in single mode optical fibers , Electron. Lett. 25 , 498 , ( 1989 ). 10.1049/el:19890341 Web of Science®Google Scholar G. Meltz , W. W. Morey , and W. H. 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Moore , Distributed measurement of static strain in an optical fiber using multiple Bragg gratings at nominally equal wavelengths , Appl. Opt. 37 ( 10 ), 1741 – 1746 ( 1998 ). 10.1364/AO.37.001741 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar M. Froggatt , B. Childers , J. Moore , and T. Erdogan , High density strain sensing using optical frequency domain reflectometry , Proc. SPIE , 4185 , 249 ( 2000 ). Web of Science®Google Scholar E. Udd , Early efforts to initiate the field of fiber optic smart structures at McDonnell Douglas , Proc. SPIE 3330 , 12 ( 1998 ). 10.1117/12.316976 Web of Science®Google Scholar M. Kunzler , E. Udd , M. Johnson , and K. Mildenhall , Use of multidimensional fiber grating strain sensors for damage detection in composite pressure vessels , Proc. SPIE , 5758 , 83 ( 2005 ). 10.1117/12.597633 Web of Science®Google Scholar J. Seim , E. Udd , W. Schulz , and H.M. Laylor , Composite strengthening and instrumentation of the horsetail falls bridge with long gauge length fiber Bragg grating strain sensors , SPIE Proc. , 3746 , 196 ( 1999 ). Google Scholar E. Udd , J. Seim , W. Schulz , and R. McMahon , Monitoring trucks, cars and joggers on the horsetail falls bridge using fiber optic grating strain sensors , SPIE Proc. , 4185 , 872 ( 2000 ). Google Scholar M . Kunzler , T. Taylor , W. Kunzler , S. Calvert , and E. Udd , Traffic Monitoring Using Fiber Optic Grating Sensors on the I-84 Freeway , SPIE Proceedings of 6th Pacific Northwest Fiber Optic Sensor Workshop , Troutdale, Oregon , May 2003 , to be published in Proceedings of SPIE. Google Scholar C. M. Lawrence , D. V. Nelson and E. Udd , Measurement of transverse strains with fiber Bragg gratings , Proc. SPIE , 3042 , 218 ( 1997 ). 10.1117/12.275739 Web of Science®Google Scholar E. Udd , C. Lawrence and D. Nelson , Development of a three axis strain and temperature fiber optic grating sensor , Proc. SPIE , 3042 , 229 ( 1997 ). 10.1117/12.275740 Web of Science®Google Scholar E. Udd , W.L. Schulz , J.M. Seim , E. Haugse , A. Trego , P.E. Johnson , T.E. Bennett , D.V. Nelson , A. Makino , Multidimensional strain field measurements using fiber optic grating sensors , Proc. SPIE , 3986 , 254 ( 2000 ). 10.1117/12.388113 Google Scholar W.L. Schulz , E. Udd , J.M. Seim , A. Trego , I.M. Perez , Progress on monitoring of adhesive joints using multiaxis fiber grating sensors , Proc. SPIE , 3991 , 52 ( 2000 ). 10.1117/12.388187 Web of Science®Google Scholar D.V. Nelson , A. Makino , C. Lawrence , J. Seim , W. Schulz , E. Udd , Determination of the K-matrix for the multi-parameter fiber grating sensor in AD072 fibercore fiber , Proc. SPIE , 3489 , 79 ( 1998 ). 10.1117/12.323418 Web of Science®Google Scholar C. M. Lawrence , D. Nelson , A. Makino , and E. Udd , Modeling of the mutli-parameter Bragg grating sensor , Proc. SPIE , 3180 , 42 ( 1997 ). 10.1117/12.285603 Web of Science®Google Scholar C. M. Lawrence , D. V. Nelson , E. Udd , and T. Bennett , A fiber optic sensor for transverse strain measurement , J. Exp. Mech. 39 , 202 ( 1999 ). 10.1007/BF02323553 Web of Science®Google Scholar C. M. Lawrence , Embedded Fiber Optic Strain Sensors for Process Monitoring of Composites , PhD Dissertation, Stanford University , June 1997 . Google Scholar T. Mawatari , Three Dimensional Strain Measurement by a Bragg Grating Sensor Subjected to Axial and Transverse Strain Measurement , PhD Dissertation, Stanford University , November 2006 . Google Scholar E.J. Lang and T-W. Chou , The effect of strain gage size on measurement errors in textile composite materials , Compos. Sci. Technol. 58 539 – 548 ( 1998 ). 10.1016/S0266-3538(97)00166-8 Web of Science®Google Scholar C. Black , E. Udd , W.L. Schulz , S. Kreger , M. Kunzler , T. Taylor , R. Lumsden , Using multi-axis fiber grating strain sensors to measure transverse strain and transverse strain gradients in composite materials with complex weave structures , Proc. SPIE , 4694 , 162 ( 2002 ). 10.1117/12.472613 Google Scholar E. Udd , K. Corona-Bittick , K. T. Slattery , D. J. Dorr , C. R. Crowe , T. L. Vandiver , and R. N. Evans , Fiber grating systems used to measure strain in cylindrical structures , Opt. Eng. , 36 , 1893 ( 1997 ). 10.1117/1.601408 Web of Science®Google Scholar E. Udd , K. Corona-Bittick , J. Dorr , K.T. Slattery , Cradle-to-grave monitoring of a composite part using fiber grating sensors , Proc. SPIE 3399 , 110 ( 1998 ). 10.1117/12.302542 Web of Science®Google Scholar E. Udd , W.L. Schulz , J. Seim , K. Corona-Bittick , J. Dorr , K.T. Slattery , H.M. Laylor , G.E. McGill , S.B. Chase , Fiber optic smart bearing load structure , SPIE Proc. , 3587 , 40 ( 1999 ). 10.1117/12.339933 Google Scholar M. Kunzler , E. Udd , S. Kreger , M. Johnson and V. Henrie , Damage evaluation and analysis of composite pressure vessels using fiber Bragg gratings to determine structural health , Proc. SPIE , 5758 , 168 ( 2005 ). 10.1117/12.599890 Web of Science®Google Scholar R. J. Schroeder , T. Yamate , and E. Udd , High Pressure and Temperature Sensing in the Oil Industry Using Fiber Bragg Gratings Written onto side hole Single Mode Fiber , OFS-13, SPIE Vol. 3746 , pp. 42 – 45 , 1999 . Google Scholar T. Yamate , R.T. Ramos , R.J. Schroeder , E. Udd , Thermally insensitive pressure measurements up to 300 degree C using fiber Bragg gratings Written onto Side HoleSingle Mode Fiber , SPIE Proc. , 4185 , 628 – 630 ( 2000 ). Google Scholar E. Udd and J. Benterou , Damage detection with sub-microsecond resolution , Proc. SPIE , 6933 , 74 – 82 ( 2008 ). Google Scholar J. Benterou , C. V. Bennett , G. Cole , D. E. Hare , C. May , E. Udd , S. J. Mihailov and P. Lu , Embedded fiber optic Bragg grating detonation velocity sensor , Proc. SPIE , 7316 , 121 – 130 ( 2009 ). Google Scholar E. Udd , I. Udd , J. Benterou , G. Rodriguez , Ultrafast fiber grating sensor systems for velocity, position, pressure, and temperature measurements , Proc. SPIE , 9852 , 193 – 206 ( 2016 ). Google Scholar G. Rodriguez , R. L. Sandberg , Q. McCulloch , S. I. Jackson , S. W. Vincent , E. Udd , Chirped fiber Bragg grating detonation velocity sensing , Rev. Sci. Instrum. , 84 , ( 2013 ). 10.1063/1.4774112 Web of Science®Google Scholar R. L. Sandberg , G. Rodriguez , L. L. Gibson , D. M. Dattelbaum , G. D. Stevens , M. Grover , B. M. Lalone , and E. Udd , Embedded optical probes for simultaneous pressure and temperature measurement of materials in extreme conditions , J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 500 , 142031 ( 2014 ). 10.1088/1742-6596/500/14/142031 Google Scholar G. Rodriguez , M. Jaime , F. Balakirev , C. H. Mielke , A. Azad , B. Marshall , B. M. La Lone , B. Henson , and L. Smilowitz , Coherent pulse interrogation system for fiber Bragg grating sensing of strain and pressure in dynamic extremes of materials , Opt. Express , 23 , 14219 – 14233 ( 2015 ). 10.1364/OE.23.014219 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar I. U. Scheel , E. Udd , and C. Kwong , Extracting pressure and temperature from high speed fiber grating sensor data associated with energetic material tests , Proc. SPIE , 11000 , 72 – 78 ( 2019 ). Google Scholar Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists, Third Edition ReferencesRelatedInformation

Chapter 9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorWilliam B. Spillman Jr., William B. Spillman Jr. Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 05 April 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119678892.ch9 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Summary Fiber optic gyro development directed toward aerospace applications began shortly after the first viable, low-loss optical fibers were fabricated in the mid-1970s. Initial developments included the demonstration of the first open- and closed-loop fiber optic gyros in 1976 and 1978. The range and depth of fiber optic sensor technology continued to expand rapidly from the 1990s to the present with advancements in a wide range of fiber optic sensor types and applications enabled in part by advancements in the telecommunication industry. The Sagnac interferometer responds to a wide variety of environmental effects that must be addressed to increase performance and reduce errors of the fiber optic gyroscope. These investigations open the opportunity for new applications of the Sagnac interferometer. The use of an integrated optical circuit and polarization-preserving optical fiber to support the closed-loop fiber gyro enabled the prospect of significant manufacturing savings and better performance than other earlier approaches. REFERENCES S. Ezekiel and G. E. Knausenberger , Eds., Laser inertial rotation sensors , SPIE Proc ., Vol. 157 , 1978 . Google Scholar S. Ezekiel and H. J. Arditty , Eds., Fiber Optic Rotation Sensors , Springer-Verlag , New York ( 1982 ). Google Scholar E. Udd , Ed., Fiber optic gyros: 10th anniversary conference , SPIE Proc ., Vol. 719 , Cambridge, Massuchesetts , 1986 . Google Scholar R. B. Smith , Ed., Selected papers on fiber optic gyros , SPIE Milestone Series , Vol. MS 8 , 1989 . 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Wanser , Fiber optic earth rotation gyro compass , U.S. Patent 4,712,306 ( 1987 ). Google Scholar G. A. Sanders et al., Fiber optic gyro development at Honeywell , In E. Udd and M. Digonnet , Eds., Design and Development of Fiber Optic Gyroscopes , SPIE Press , pp. 65 – 92 ( 2019 ). 10.1117/3.2522293.ch4 Google Scholar H. C. Lefevre et. al., The fiber optic gyro 'adventure' at Photonetics, iXsea and iXblue , Proc. SPIE , 11405 , paper 1140505 ( 2020 ). Google Scholar G. A. Pavlath , Fiber optic gyros from research to production , in Design and Development of Fiber Optic Gyroscopes , E. Udd and M. Digonnet , Eds., SPIE Press , pp. 93 – 100 ( 2019 ). 10.1117/3.2522293.ch5 Google Scholar G. A. Pavlath , Productization of fiber gyros at Litton Guidance and Control Systems , Proc. SPIE , 1585 , 2 – 7 ( 1991 ). 10.1117/12.549632 Google Scholar G. A. Pavlath , Closed loop fiber optic gyros , Proc. SPIE , 2837 , 46 – 60 ( 1996 ). 10.1117/12.258198 Google Scholar G. A. Sanders et al., Fiber optic gyros for space, marine, and aviation applications , Proc. SPIE , 2837 , 61 – 71 , ( 1996 ). 10.1117/12.258208 Google Scholar W. W. Kemmler et al., Design of a commercial small volume fiber optic gyro , Proc. SPIE , 2837 , 92 – 97 ( 1996 ). 10.1117/12.258211 Google Scholar J. Kunz , M. W. Kemmler , G. Spahlinger , and M. Ribes , Design of an ASIC for a commercial small volume fiber optic gyro , Proc. SPIE , 2837 , 98 – 105 ( 1996 ). 10.1117/12.258212 Google Scholar T. Gaiffe , From R&D to Navigation grade FOG-based INS the experience of photonetics/iXsea , IEEE Proceedings of OFS-15 , Portland , pp. 1 – 4 ( 2002 ). Google Scholar W. Auch , Fiber optic gyro—a device for the laboratory only? , Proc. SPIE , 719 , 28 – 34 ( 1986 ). 10.1117/12.937535 Google Scholar W. Auch , M. Oswald , and R. A. Regener , Fiber optic gyro productization at Alcatel SEL , Proc. SPIE , 1585 , 65 – 81 ( 1991 ). 10.1117/12.135036 Google Scholar H. Kajioka , T. Kumagai , H. 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Chapter 3 LIGHT SOURCES Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorWilliam B. Spillman Jr., William B. Spillman Jr. Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 05 April 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119678892.ch3 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Summary This chapter reviews some of the fundamental properties of light sources that are of particular importance to fiber optic sensors. It describes the various types of light sources as well as their output characteristics. Light sources used to support fiber optic sensors produce light that is often dominated by either spontaneous or stimulated emission. Efforts are made to avoid the recirculation of light in the optical cavity, so the resulting single-pass output beam has low coherence, similar to a light source dominated by spontaneous emission. When two light beams are combined, they will interfere with each other in a constructive or destructive manner provided that their relative phases are well defined. For most fiber optic sensors, semiconductor-based light sources offer advantages in power consumption, reliability, size, and cost that often preclude the selection of alternative light sources. The chapter reviews some of the most commonly used semiconductor light sources for fiber sensor applications. REFERENCES H. Kresse , Electroluminescent sources for fiber systems , in Fundamentals of Optical Fiber Communication , M. K. Barnoski , Ed., Academic Press , New York , 1976 . Google Scholar H. Okuda , M. Ishikawa , H. Shiozawa , Y. Watanabe , K. Itaya , K. Nitta , G. Hatakoshi , Y. Kokubun , and Y. Uematsu , Highly reliable InGaP/InGaAlP visible light emitting inner stripe lasers with 667 nm lasing wavelength , IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 25 , 1477 ( 1989 ). 10.1109/3.29283 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar A. Gromyo , K. 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Chapter 8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING RESONATOR Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Eric Udd, Eric Udd Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USASearch for more papers by this authorWilliam B. Spillman Jr., William B. Spillman Jr. Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 05 April 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119678892.ch8 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Summary Sagnac interferometers and passive ring resonators can be used to sense a wide range of environmental phenomena. This chapter begins with an introduction to the use of the Sagnac interferometer and passive ring resonator for rotation sensing. This includes an introduction to the Sagnac effect and continues with a discussion of its first commercial implementation in the form of the ring laser gyro. The chapter describes fiber optic gyros in both the Sagnac interferometer and passive ring resonator configurations for open- and closed-loop operation. Optical rotation sensors have made substantial progress in replacing conventional mechanical rotation sensors based on the principle of inertia of spinning masses. In contrast to the ring laser and passive ring resonator gyros that measure the Sagnac effect due to changes in the optical path length of a single circuit, the fiber optic gyro measures the Sagnac effect in a fiber coil having many turns. REFERENCES E. J. Post , Sagnac effect , Rev. Mod. Phys. 39 , 475 ( 1967 ). 10.1103/RevModPhys.39.475 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar E. J. Post , Interferometric path-length changes due to motion , J. Opt. Soc. Am. 62 , 234 ( 1972 ). 10.1364/JOSA.62.000234 Web of Science®Google Scholar H. J. Arditty and H. C. Lefevre , Sagnac effect in fiber optic gyroscopes , Opt. Lett. 6 , 401 ( 1981 ). 10.1364/OL.6.000401 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar B. Y. Kim , H. C. Lefevre , R. A. Bergh , and H. J. Shaw , Harmonic feedback approach to fiber optic gyro scale factor stabilization , Optical Fiber Sensors , IEE Conference Publication 221 , 1983 , p. 136 . Google Scholar N. J. Frigo , Constant accuracy high dynamic range fiber optic gyroscope , Proc. SPIE 719 , 155 ( 1986 ). 10.1117/12.937552 Google Scholar A. D. Kersey , A. Dandridge , and W. K. Burns , Two wavelength fibre gyroscope with wide dynamic range , Electron. Lett. 22 , 935 ( 1986 ). 10.1049/el:19860637 Web of Science®Google Scholar F. Aronowitz , The laser gyro , in Laser Applications , M. Ross , Ed., Academic Press , New York , pp. 113 – 200 . Google Scholar W. W. Chow , J. Gea-Beanacloche , L. M. Pedrotti , V. E. Sanders , W. Schleich , and M. O. Scully , The ring laser gyro , Rev. Mod. Phys. 57 , 61 ( 1985 ). 10.1103/RevModPhys.57.61 Web of Science®Google Scholar G. A. Sanders , M. G. Prentiss , and S. 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Mechanical gyro limitations and reliability issues drove the development of the ring laser gyro in the 1960s. Just as production prototypes began to emerge in the mid-1970s the first fiber gyro breadboard emerged. This paper provides an overview of factors that have driven the development of the fiber optic gyro, its applications, and recommendations for further information.

In order to characterize energetic materials, it is highly desirable to be able to measure velocity, position, pressure, and temperature throughout the event. This paper looks at approaches associated with extracting these parameters from data obtained using high speed fiber grating sensor systems. Prior work has demonstrated that velocity, position, and local pressure data may be obtained using chirped fiber grating sensors (CFBGs). Uniform fiber grating sensors have been used to quantify local pressures beyond the range associated with CFBGs. A main challenge faced today is the separate of these parameters from temperature. A novel approach that may be used to isolate temperature and pressure measurements using a high-speed fiber grating sensor system is presented in this paper.

Since the early days of flight gyroscopes have acted as a key enabling technology for stabilization and guidance of aircraft and rockets. Mechanical gyros were the first to be used. They suffered from repeated failures and were aggressively replaced by ring laser gyros beginning in the late 1970s. Almost in parallel with the introduction of ring laser gyros, the first solid state gyros based on fiber optics began their development, at about the same time I began working on fiber sensors at McDonnell Douglas. This paper summarizes thoughts on the past, present and future of fiber optic gyros.

A very high-speed fiber Bragg grating sensing system has been used to characterize energetic materials in card gap and Russian DDT tests(1,2). This paper reviews the system capability of measuring the position, velocity, pressure, and temperature associated with energetic events. A readout system based on optical beam conditioning and high-speed detectors sends data from fiber Bragg grating sensors under extreme environments to a digital oscilloscope where events that occur on the order of a few nanoseconds can be resolved.

Over the last 40 years the fiber optic sensor field has changed dramatically. This was driven in part by advances in optical components, optoelectronics, and semiconductors coupled with the emergence of fiber optic communication, compact disks, and DVD readers. This paper contains some illustrations on how key fiber optic sensors have evolved and are interrelated. These improved fiber sensor designs over time in combination with improvements in system components have allowed performance and cost improvements that have resulted in penetration into aerospace and defense, civil structures, oil and gas, electric power, and medical applications

Fiber gratings have been used to measure strain fields in pressure vessels made of composite materials and aircraft adhesive joints1 . Measuring transverse loads have traditionally been performed by inducing a differential strain across the optical core of a fiber. Small changes in load cause the birefringence in the fiber to increase and capturing the spectral shifts using this method necessitates extremely accurate readout systems and careful analysis. This paper suggests a new approach for measuring transverse load by converting it to longitudinal strain and covers a very high-speed system used for measuring velocity, position, and pressure events that are on the order of a few microseconds.

In 1977 McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company began a project on using fiber optic sensors to support the Delta Rocket program. This resulted in a series of fiber sensors to support the measurement of rotation, acoustics, vibration, strain, and temperature for a variety of applications and early work on fiber optic smart structures. The work on fiber optic smart structures transitioned in part to Blue Road Research in 1993 and continued in 2006 to the present at Columbia Gorge Research. This paper summarizes some of the efforts made by these companies to implement fiber optic smart structures over this forty year period.

Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and other fiber optic based sensors have been used to sense environmental parameters for numerous applications including aerospace, oil and gas, civil structure health monitoring, mining, and medical. There are many benefits to using fiber optic based sensors over traditional electrical sensing methods. These advantages include: immunity to electromagnetic interference, high bandwidth, low loss, small, lightweight, and portability. New developments allow these physical measurements such as strain, temperature, pressure, vibration, and acoustics to be made at extremely fast speeds extending the capability of fiber optic sensor systems to monitor impacts and other rapid events.

In 1977 McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company began a project to investigate the usage of optical gyros to support the Delta Launch vehicle. This resulted in the invention of the closed loop fiber optic gyro and several derivative inventions that allowed entry into acoustics for undersea applications, launched the field of fiber optic smart structures, and resulted in some strange detours into secure fiber optic communication. Health monitoring activities with Blue Road Research, Inc. and later Columbia Gorge Research, LLC continuing to develop fiber sensors for an ever wider range of use including civil structures, oil and gas, environmental sensing, high speed machining, composite manufacturing, energetic materials, robotic surgery and electric power. This paper primarily follow the path to the moon, Mars and beyond with the objective of showing how fiber sensors are helping us to get there and ultimately will help us stay there.

Commercializing technology describes the process of developing commercial products based on state-of-the-art technology. Taking engineering technology from high-capital industries and applying it to commercial markets is a daunting task. This tutorial starts with a review of product development and marketing basics. Then, I describe the additional problems of commercializing technology. I will use the example of commercializing an automotive collision warning radar to illustrate the problems associated with taking military-type technology from the high-cost, low- production environment to a viable product for mass production. I describe how to get the most from limited assets, labor, and capital and what to expect when looking for financial assistance from the government, venture partners, and other companies.

On September 29, 1977 the first written disclosure of a closed loop fiber optic gyro was witnessed and signed off by four people at McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company in Huntington Beach, California. Over the next ten years a breadboard demonstration unit, and several prototypes were built. In 1987 the fundamental patent for closed loop operation began a McDonnell Douglas worldwide licensing process. Internal fiber optic efforts were redirected to derivative sensors and inventions. This included development of acoustic, strain and distributed sensors as well as a Sagnac interferometer based secure fiber optic communication system and the new field of fiber optic smart structures. This paper provides an overview of these activities and transitions.