Aluminium has become a cornerstone of sustainable architectural design due to its lightweight properties, structural strength, corrosion resistance, and high recyclability. However, its primary production remains energy-intensive and a major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of commonly used aluminium alloys in architectural components, evaluating them across key stages—production and end-of-life—based on energy consumption, emissions, and recyclability. The analysis covers 3000, 5000 and 6000-series alloys, as well as recycled, anodized, and coated variants. The study contributes a parameterized LCA-based framework to support sustainable material selection in façade and structural design. It highlights the importance of incorporating recycled content, optimizing alloy use based on application, and adopting circular economy strategies such as closed-loop recycling. These findings offer practical guidance for architects, engineers, and policymakers striving toward low-carbon, net-zero building goals.

The paper deals with the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for the thermal performance analysis and optimisation of prefabricated Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) ventilated façades. TCC envelopes are composed of an internal insulated timber-frame wall coupled to an external concrete slab, separated by a ventilated air cavity. Such systems join the properties of engineered timber (good seismic behaviour, low thermal conductivity, environmental sustainability, and ease of system integration) with those of concrete (high thermal inertia, excellent durability and fire resistance). There is very limited knowledge on the performance of TCC facades, especially for what concerns their thermal behaviour. For this reason, a TCC ventilated façade located in the north of Italy was monitored over one year, and the results collected were used to calibrate and validate a CFD model. A new solver algorithm was developed to speed up the CFD simulations, allowing up to 45 times faster analysis compared to conventional solvers. Thanks to this improvement, the final model is suitable to be used for time-efficient thermal analysis (a full-day real-time simulation takes approximately 23 minutes), limiting the expensive and time-consuming construction of mock-ups. The CFD model developed is suitable for the thermal performance analysis and optimisation of TCC ventilated facades, but also for generic ventilated facades with external massive cladding, both in the case of new and existing buildings.

The integration of tilted photovoltaic strings on large, flat roofs, typical of industrial and commercial buildings, raises complex design challenges, particularly regarding wind-induced loads. This study presents a comprehensive wind tunnel investigation aimed at evaluating the aerodynamic effects on rooftop PV strings under various representative configurations and the correlation between characteristic geometric parameters such as tilt angle, bottom clearance, row spacing, and wind direction. Following a literature review, a detailed 1:10 scaled model with geometric adjustment capabilities was developed and eventually tested in a boundary-layer wind tunnel. High-resolution pressure measurements were processed to derive force and moment resultants normalised by reference wind pressure. Envelopes of force/moment resultants are presented for each representative geometric configuration and for each wind exposure angle. The results present severe variations in local wind actions, particularly significant at the strings’ free ends and for oblique wind angles. The severe underestimation of local wind loads by standard codes is discussed. The findings underline the importance of detailed wind-load assessment for both new constructions and retrofits, suggesting that reliance solely on code provisions might result in unsafe designs.

The research addresses the topic of the mechanical behaviour of ventilated façades in case of fire. Whereas Italian and international regulations mainly focus on the reaction to fire of adopted materials, they don’t pay specific attention to the structural resistance of the façade. Most of the substructures adopted for ventilated façades are made of thin-walled steel or aluminium profiles, whose mechanical properties decay dramatically as the temperature increases. Furthermore, relevant thermal expansions modify the static design scheme leading to the onset of indirect actions and eventually to the structure’s failure. Due to the interconnection between the substructure and the cladding elements, the latter are also affected by these phenomena and susceptible to local damages. The falling of broken slabs could seriously compromise the safety of escaping building users and firefighters called to intervene. The article discusses the effect of fire on the structural resistance of ventilated façades, comparing the sensitivity to this phenomenon of profiles made of aluminium, carbon steel and stainless steel, with light and heavy cladding and different support systems. A finite element model was created to evaluate the temperature’s evolution over time and the consequent mechanical response for the various configurations. It is eventually demonstrated that not all current solutions can guarantee the stability of the façade.

Timber-concrete composite (TCC) systems join the positive aspects of engineered wood products (good seismic behaviour, low thermal conductivity, environmental sustainability, good behaviour under fire if appropriately designed) with those of concrete (high thermal inertia, durability, excellent fire resistance). TCC facades are typically composed by an internal insulated timber-frame wall and an external concrete slab, separated by a ventilated air cavity. However, there is very limited knowledge concerning the performance of TCC facades, especially for what concerns their thermal behaviour. The present paper deals with the development and optimisation of a 2D CFD model for the analysis of TCC ventilated façades thermal behaviour. The model is calibrated and validated against the experimental data collected during the annual monitoring of a real TCC ventilated envelope in the north of Italy. Also, a new solver algorithm is developed to significantly speed up the simulation. The final model can be used for the time-efficient analysis and optimisation of the thermal performance of TCC ventilated facades, as well as other ventilated facades with external massive cladding, avoiding the expensive and time-consuming construction of mock-ups, or the use of comparably slow (conventional) CFD solvers that are less suitable for optimization studies.

Timber–concrete composite (TCC) systems join the positive aspects of engineered wood products (good seismftaic behaviour, low thermal conductivity, environmental sustainability, good behaviour under fire if appropriately designed) with those of concrete (high thermal inertia, durability, excellent fire resistance). TCC facades are typically composed of an internal insulated timber-frame wall and an external concrete slab, separated by a ventilated air cavity. However, there is very limited knowledge concerning the performance of TCC facades, especially concerning their thermal behaviour. The present paper deals with the development and optimization of a 2D Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model for the analysis of TCC ventilated façades’ thermal behaviour. The model is calibrated and validated against experimental data collected during the annual monitoring of a real TCC ventilated envelope in the north of Italy. Also, a new solver algorithm is developed to significantly speed up the simulation (i.e., 45 times faster simulation at an error below 3.5 °C compared to a typical CFD solver). The final model can be used for the time-efficient analysis (simulation time of approximately 23 min for a full day in real-time) and the optimization of the thermal performance of TCC ventilated facades, as well as other ventilated facades with external massive cladding. Our simulation strategy partially avoids the expensive and time-consuming construction of mock-ups, or the use of comparably slow (conventional) CFD solvers that are less suitable for optimization studies.

The building envelope plays an important role in meeting complex functional requirements and stringent green energy standards. The global energy demand is increasing and most of it is consumed in the building sector. The building envelope, which is responsible for the energy balance of the building, plays the most important role in achieving nearly Zero Energy Buildings (nZEB). In this study, innovative fibre-reinforced composite materials are integrated into certified building envelope system technologies. Variables associated with the production of fibre-reinforced composites are discussed, covering aspects of design, installation, and potential applications such as innovative ventilated façade and BIPV systems. Identification of tools, regulations, and test methods will be essential for evaluating design solutions in specific environments. Long-term performance includes maintenance and durability aspects. Based on a scientific approach and integrated design, the use of new technologies can significantly improve the overall behaviour of the building envelope. New strategies to scale up the many discoveries of green recycling through prevention, repair, and ideal reuse, contribute to cost-effective and sustainable practices of this material. This interdisciplinary approach addresses the multifaceted challenges of modern façade systems and paves the way for sustainable and energy-efficient building solutions.

The current regulations on building envelope requirements are no longer related only to aspects of energy efficiency or guarantee of durability over time, but also to new performance scenarios concerning technological systems in relation to adaptation, mitigation and resilience to increasingly frequent extreme climate events. The research aims to analyse causes, effects and potential strategies to increase the resilience of the building envelope in case of extreme events, proposing solutions to reduce the consequences of the impact of flying debris on the building envelope. The contribution is the result of a research activity conducted within the HORIZON METABUILDING LABS Innovation research project.

The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events have increased in the last few years. Buildings resiliency against natural hazards (hurricanes, flooding, wildfires, etc.) is fundamental for the adaptation to climate change, however it is hardly included in their design. Buildings exposed to extreme climate conditions may become drivers of vulnerability, rather than providing shelter for users, leading to human and economic losses. The building stock assessment appears to be quite detailed about seismic vulnerability and energy demand related to climate change, but not towards other hazardous events, such as extreme winds. Furthermore, climate data provided by current standards and used for building design need to be seriously reconsidered, since they no longer represent the real weather variables. During windstorms, the main threats are mainly due to the detaching and flying of materials and elements from buildings and urban furniture. The chapter deals with the effects and consequences of strong wind events on the built heritage and calls for an urban transition to create resilient and safe environments for the people. An overview of the current standards related to building design against wind is presented, and mitigation and adaptation strategies are proposed to respond to current and future climate threats.

This paper commences with a scientific literature review of current research that underlines the environmental benefits to be gained from using smaller quantities of raw materials in the construction industry, with particular emphasis on a sustainable approach to façade design. Life cycle assessment modelling is advocated to validate the sustainability of building structures to achieve optimal solutions. A real-life application of the design of an aluminium façade bracket is presented, demonstrating that a weight reduction of up to 35-45% is attainable by exploiting the post-elastic properties of a material. The work described ranges from a discussion of the current conventional numerical techniques adopted by the industry to the most recent and advanced computational methods permitted by the introduction of Eurocode 9. This code facilitates a substantial enhancement in structural performance by incorporating an evaluation of the material's elastic-hardening behaviour and allows for a noteworthy reduction in component size and increased geometric design flexibility.

The construction of timber buildings has increased in recent years, thanks to the excellent properties of the material. To achieve improved behaviour in terms of mechanical properties, energy and acoustic performance, fire resistance and durability, timber structures are sometimes integrated with other materials, such as concrete and steel, resulting in hybrid timber-based structures. This paper presents a literature review on hybrid timberbased structures, summarizing the state of the art of hybrid timber-based structures constructed to date and examining the main research contributions. The aim is to establish a background for improving existing solutions or proposing new hybrid timber-based systems and components.

This paper presents a study of the thermo-hygrometric behaviour of a Double Skin Façade (DSF) unit. The study aims (i) at comparing currently used calculation procedures according to European and American standards (UNI EN ISO 10077, UNI EN ISO 12631:2018, ISO 15099:2003, ANSI/NFRC 100 for the thermal performance and ISO 13788:2012 (2012) for the condensation risk), and (ii) at assessing the 2D hygrothermal performance of a double skin module through a Finite Element Method (FEM)-based model. According to the current standards, a detailed characterization of thermal and fluid dynamic phenomena in closed and ventilated cavities is neglected and a simplified approach is proposed, which tends to overestimate the overall U-value of the curtain wall (UCW) due to an incremental thermal resistance that depends on the thickness of the air gap layer and the level of ventilation. The potential risk of this simplification is that the DSF estimated design performance, whilst complying with regulatory requirements, present inconsistencies respect to the real behaviour, impacting energy, comfort, material degradation, etc. Accurate assessments could be done already during design through detailed FEM multi-physic analyses. Nevertheless, those require a specific knowledge, are cost and time-consuming. As a first step, this study focuses on comparing the normed calculation approach for the design, against a detailed FEM-based multi-physics methodology. Specifically, this couples CFD, hygrothermal and Ray Tracing physics in a tool for the calculation of thermal transmittance, g-value and relative humidity of a DSF with a customizable geometry. As a second step, given a real DSF unit that showed unforeseen phenomena of surface condensation inside the cavity during several hours in spring and autumn, the multi-physic tool has been used to evaluate the condensation risk with the current and modified DSF design, under static and time-dependent boundary conditions.

We propose a model that aims to fulfill the following three necessities: the demand for refurbishing the existing built environment, the lack of a reliable means to help architects navigate among the numerous possible solutions for low-energy constructions, and the need for a multi-function tool to analyze buildings as complex systems. We introduce the Optimal Refurbishment Design (ORD) model that is a novel tool to help architects with the refurbishment of an existing building or the design of a new one. The ORD shows four innovative aspects. First, it opens the way to passive building design while focusing on affordable solutions. Second, its core component is based on mathematical optimization. Third, it simultaneously outputs optimal thermal mass and insulation of all the required elements in the building. Fourth, it automatically accounts for the user’s needs and local regulations. Unlike most of the approaches in the Literature, the ORD’s outputs are not limited by any pre-defined set of materials or strategies. We tested the ORD using a realistic study case of refurbishment, and found that the renovated house achieved the energy consumption of a Passive House by lowering its annual heating/cooling consumption by 23% with a payback period of less than 5 years.

Ventilated façades can help to reduce summer building thermal loads and, therefore, energy consumption due to air-conditioning systems thanks to the combined effect of the solar radiation reflection and the natural or forced ventilation into the cavity. The evaluation of ventilated façades behavior and performance is complex and requires a complete thermo-fluid dynamic analysis. In this study, a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methodology has been developed for the complete assessment of the energy performance of a prefabricated timber–concrete composite ventilated façade module in different operating conditions. Global numerical results are presented as well as local ones in terms of heat flux, air velocity, and temperature inside the façade cavity. The results show the dependency of envelope efficiency on solar radiation, the benefits that natural convection brings on potential energy savings and the importance of designing an optimized façade geometry. The results concerning the façade behavior have been thoroughly compared with International Standards, showing the good accuracy of the model with respect to these well-known procedures. This comparison allowed also to highlight the International Standards procedures limits in evaluating the ventilated façade behavior with the necessary level of detail, with the risk of leading to design faults.

The subject of the study is pilot clusters that are beneficial to a particular region, taking into account the traditions and production areas of the region. The work aims to develop an innovative strategy for state-supported pilot clusters that would allow for flexible management decision making. The proposed method involves the compound real options to be employed in the following order: 1) an option to reduce and abandon the cluster strategy; 2) an option to develop and replicate the experience accumulated in the cluster; 3) an option to switch from and temporarily stop the cluster strategy; and 4) an option to postpone the implementation of the new cluster strategy. As an example of the implementation of the method presented, the authors discuss the strategy for the development of a pilot electric power cluster in the Nizhny Novgorod region presented by the core company TNS energo NN PJSC. The use of the compound real option method enabled the cost increase of the strategy for this cluster – i.e., the effect of its implementation by the core company rose by 89.1%, from 2 710 022 to 5 124 706 thousand Rubles. Thus, using the compound real options precisely in the presented order avoids unreasonable management decisions to exit the current cluster strategy, which would include many tactical opportunities already implemented for cluster development. First, a put option, i.e., an option to reduce and exit the cluster strategy, supplements the evaluation of the current strategy. If the current strategy continues, the other three options are used.