Understanding predator-prey dynamics is pivotal for advancing sustainable pest management strategies. This study examined the functional response of Harmonia axyridis across six developmental stages when preying upon the eggs of two destructive lepidopteran pests including Spodoptera litura and Spodoptera frugiperda. Using logistic regression and Holling's disc equation, a clear Type II functional response was observed across all stages except first instars, indicating a density-dependent predation pattern constrained by handling time at higher prey densities. Adult females consistently emerged as the most potent predators, demonstrating the highest effectiveness of predation (1.591 on S. litura; 1.736 on S. frugiperda) and maximum predation rates (113.7 and 120.9 eggs, respectively). Adult males and fourth instar larvae also showed high predation capacities, with maximum consumption nearing 99 and 95 eggs. In contrast, first instars exhibited minimal predatory potential (effectiveness <0.017; maximum consumption <10 eggs), highlighting the critical role of developmental maturity in predation performance. Notably, predation on S. frugiperda eggs slightly surpassed that on S. litura, suggesting host-specific traits may modulate predator efficiency. The functional response curves confirmed a classic decelerating intake rate at high prey densities, characteristic of Type II predators. These findings affirm the high consumptive potential of H. axyridis, particularly adult females, as efficient natural enemies against Spodoptera spp. eggs, and provide actionable insights for their integration into targeted, stage-specific biological control programs.

Insecticides continue to play a crucial role in protecting global agriculture by preventing significant crop losses. Yet, their persistent, intensive, and often unregulated use has led to the rapid development of resistance in many pest species. The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), a highly damaging and highly adaptable polyphagous pest, now poses one of the biggest threats to global food security. Its rapid spread and strong capacity for evolution have increased reliance on chemical control, which has contributed to rising resistance levels, environmental concerns, and economic costs. This review summarizes current knowledge on resistance mechanisms in S. frugiperda, including target-site mutations and metabolic detoxification, and offers an updated overview of global resistance patterns. In addition to chemical methods, we explore integrated and sustainable management strategies, including advanced biotechnologies such as RNA interference (RNAi), CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, nanotechnology-based delivery systems, host plant resistance, biological control and cultural practices. Principles of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM), such as rotating insecticides with different modes of action and systematically monitoring resistance, are discussed alongside emerging issues, including potential resistance to viral biocontrol agents. By emphasizing innovative technologies and integrated strategies, this review offers new insights into reducing the development of resistance and promoting long-term, environmentally friendly pest management.

Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests of wheat, with their population dynamics strongly influenced by host genotype, sowing time, and prevailing environmental conditions. This study evaluated aphid infestation across seven sowing dates and 12 wheat genotypes, evaluating relationship with natural enemies and weather factors with a goal of identifying sowing dates and genotypes associated with low aphid density. Seasonal mean aphid density differed significantly among genotypes for each sowing date. Of the 12 genotypes of wheat studied, two were highly susceptible and two consistently showed lower infestation. Aphid outbreaks peaked between 14 and 27 February, with maximum populations recorded on 20 and 27 February across several genotypes. Natural enemies such as Coccinellids, Chrysopids, Syrphids, and parasitoids displayed significant positive associations with aphid abundance, suggesting they are able to track cues to find prey, and may play a regulatory role. Abiotic factors were strongly predictive of infestation: averaging across all genotypes of wheat, aphid abundance decreased with temperature, with temperature alone explaining 73.5% of the variation in abundance. Aphid abundance also decreased with hours of daylight (explaining an additional 14.1% of the variation in abundance). These findings demonstrate that aphid population dynamics in wheat are genotype-specific and environmentally driven, with mid-to-late February identified as the most critical infestation window. Selecting resistant/tolerant genotypes, adjusting sowing dates, and leveraging the role of natural enemies provide a sustainable pathway for aphid management. These insights are vital for refining integrated pest management strategies under changing climatic conditions.

Steinernema carpocapsae is an entomopathogenic nematode with established efficacy against various agricultural pests. However, its impact on key lepidopteran pests, including Ostrinia furnacalis, Mythimna separata, and Spodoptera litura, remains underexplored, particularly at the pupal stage. This study evaluates the efficacy of the nematode through a combination of choice-based attraction assays, non-choice infection performance bioassays involving direct application to specific pupal body parts, and assessments of sublethal effects on adult survival and oviposition following pupal-stage exposure. S. carpocapsae exhibited a clear preference for pupae of all three pests over blank controls and for previously infected pupae over healthy pupae. When presented with different pupal genders, S. carpocapsae preferred female M. separata over males but showed no gender preference for O. furnacalis and S. litura. Infection performance varied by body part, with a higher infection performance on the abdomen and thorax compared to the head for O. furnacalis and S. litura, and on the abdomen over the thorax and head for M. separata. Adult survival probability was significantly lower when pupae were infected, and female oviposition was reduced when either member of a mating pair had been infected. These findings highlight the efficacy of S. carpocapsae as a promising biological control agent against these lepidopteran pests, particularly when targeting the pupal stage.

Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) represents a major threat to maize production across Pakistan, with chemical control serving as the predominant management approach. The intensive application of insecticides, particularly diamide compounds such as chlorantraniliprole, has escalated concerns regarding resistance evolution in field populations. This study evaluated the insecticidal efficacy of seven commonly used compounds against geographically diverse field-collected populations of S. frugiperda from major maize-growing regions of Pakistan, revealing significant inter-population variability in susceptibility profiles. Chlorantraniliprole was selected for comprehensive transgenerational screening based on moderate baseline LC50 values and optimal laboratory colony establishment parameters. A representative field strain underwent six consecutive generations of selection pressure at LC70 concentrations, resulting in a 4.48-fold increase in resistance levels with a realized heritability (h2) of 0.198. Predictive modeling using established quantitative genetic frameworks demonstrated that resistance evolution rates are critically dependent on both selection intensity and genetic parameters. Under constant h2 = 0.198, increasing selection intensity substantially accelerated resistance development, with 10-fold resistance achievable in approximately 18 generations at 80% selection intensity (slope = 2.696) compared to 36 generations at lower intensities (slope = 4.696). Sensitivity analysis revealed that heritability variations from 0.148 to 0.248 could reduce generation requirements from >40 to ~25 generations when slope was maintained at 3.696. Life table analyses of the chlorantraniliprole-selected strain demonstrated significant fitness costs manifested as extended developmental periods, reduced reproductive output, and decreased intrinsic rate of population increase (r), indicating evolutionary trade-offs associated with resistance acquisition. These findings provide crucial insights for developing sustainable management strategies, highlighting the importance of integrating resistance monitoring, refuge-based approaches, and rotation with insecticides of different modes of action to delay resistance buildup in field populations. Such data-driven management frameworks are vital for maintaining the long-term efficacy of diamides in Pakistan’s maize production systems.

The Asian corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée, 1854), is a serious pest of several crops, particularly a destructive pest of maize and other cereals throughout most of Asia, including China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Cambodia. It has long been known as a pest in South-east Asia and has invaded other parts of Asia, Solomon Islands, parts of Africa and certain regions of Australia and Russia. Consequently, worldwide efforts have been increased to ensure new control strategies for O. furnacalis management. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the ACB covering its (i) distribution (geographic range and seasonal variations), (ii) morphology and ecology (taxonomy, life-history, host plants and economic importance) and (iii) management strategies (which include agroecological approaches, mating disruption, integrated genetic approaches, chemical as well as biological control). Furthermore, we conclude this review with recommendations to provide some suggestions for improving eco-friendly pest management strategies to enhance the sustainable management of ACB in infested areas.

Rising concerns over chemical insecticides are demanding alternative pest management methods. The present study planned to explore the potential of elemental-ES, bio-sulphur-BS, compost-Cp, and compared to insecticide (Carbosulfan) and untreated controls for sustainable management of canola aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae). Split doses were more useful (screen house experiments) over single dose (in field). BS mixed with Cp provided best results to suppress aphid reproduction. Insecticide effects were instant but not long-lasting. Sulphur mixture also improved crop yield and oil contents; however, plant height was maximum in insecticide. RP-HPLC revealed activation of different phenolic defense chemicals (three flavonoids, five phenolic acids, and six hydroxycinnamic acid) in canola. Phenolic compounds were higher in sulphur-treated plants but their distribution patterns were altered in leaves, shoots, and seeds. The results could be extended to insect pests on other crops. However, further genetic studies are needed to discover the intricate pattern of sulphur resistance.

Cyantraniliprole is a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide commonly used against fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda; however, sublethal exposure of cyantraniliprole on different generations of S. frugiperda, has not been fully studied. This proposed study aimed to estimate the sublethal effects of cyantraniliprole on the biological and demographic parameters of parental generation (F-0) and intergenerational effects on the offspring generation (F-1) of S. frugiperda using Age-stage, two-sex life table software. The bioassay result proved the strong toxicity of cyantraniliprole toward S. frugiperda, as demonstrated by an LC50 value of 0.439 mg/kg after 96 h treatment. The larval duration of F-0 S. frugiperda significantly increased when treated with the low lethal (LC30) and sublethal (LC10) concentrations of cyantraniliprole. Adult longevities were decreased while pupal duration was increased in the treated groups. The adult preoviposition period (APOP) and total preoviposition period (TPOP) were higher in the treated groups compared to the control. Moreover, the fecundity was significantly decreased at the LC10 and LC30 in the F-0 and F-1 generations, respectively. For the F-0 generation, the relative fitness (R-f) for the LC10 and LC30 were 0.45 and 0.32, while for the F-1 generation, the values were 0.65 and 0.48, respectively. In summary, our results showed that life table characteristics of S. frugiperda were negatively affected by LC10 and LC30 of cyantraniliprole, ultimately inhibiting population growth. These findings may be crucial for understanding the overall impact of cyantraniliprole on the life-history traits of S. frugiperda, potentially aiding in the management of this invasive pest in open-field conditions.

The adaptability of agricultural pests to varied environments is a critical factor in their ability to cause significant damage, making it a major challenge for effective crop management. While the adaptability of Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is well-documented, the extent to which different populations diverge in fitness when reared on natural versus artificial diets remains poorly understood. This study addresses this gap by assessing the fitness and adaptive divergence of three O. furnacalis populations i.e., field, laboratory, and hybrid (field x laboratory), when reared on maize and artificial diets, using age-stage, two-sex life table theory. Significant differences in survival and demographic parameters were observed among the populations. The field population exhibited 32.5 % faster growth on maize, with a shorter mean generation time (T) compared to the artificial diet. In contrast, the laboratory population grew (T) 29.5 % faster on the artificial diet compared to maize. The hybrid population showed a slight preference for maize, with growth (T) being 3.1 % faster than on the artificial diet. Trends in intrinsic rate of increase (r), finite rate of increase (lambda) and other associated parameters followed a consistent pattern, with field population thriving on maize and laboratory population better suited to the artificial diet. The hybrid population demonstrated balanced adaptability to both diets, with an overall slight tendency of better performing on maize. This study highlights the importance of diet-specific adaptation in O. furnacalis and provides critical insights into the adaptive divergence for optimising laboratory rearing practices and improving pest management strategies.

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a major pest of maize crops, posing a serious threat to food security. This study aimed to evaluate the pathogenicity of fungal isolates (Ma: Metarhizium anisopliae and Bb: Beauveria bassiana) and nematode species (Sc: Steinernema carpocapsae and Hb: Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) alone and in-combinations against the 3rd instar larvae of S. frugiperda. The entomopathogens alone induced mortality ranging from 31.67 to 80.00

American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) is a major key pest that is destroying cotton crops worldwide, causing significant yield losses and threatening sustainable agriculture. The excessive and prolonged use of chemical insecticides to control this pest has led to resistance development and ecological imbalances. This study aimed to evaluate the insecticidal efficacy of a native isolate of Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltNPV) and five commonly used insecticides, i.e., chlorantraniliprole, emamectin benzoate, bifenthrin, spinosad and chlorpyrifos, against second-instar larvae of H. armigera. All treatments were tested at four quantitative levels, and mortality data were analyzed using ANOVA (P < 0.05), confirming a significant effect of treatments with a good model fit (χ2 test, P > 0.05). SpltNPV, chlorantraniliprole, emamectin benzoate and bifenthrin achieved > 50

The Peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata S. (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a highly polyphagous pest responsible for significant damage to orchard fruits due to the egg-laying behavior of females. However, understanding and manipulating this ovipositional behavior can help mitigate fruit damage. This study aimed to assess the ovipositional preference behavior of B. zonata on different host fruits under controlled laboratory conditions. The experiments consisted of both "no-choice" and "choice" setups to evaluate various oviposition-related parameters: the number of fruit visits, duration of visits, oviposition attempts, successful ovipositions, and the duration of oviposition completion. Guava (Psidium guajava L.), banana (Mangifera indica L.), and papaya (Carica papaya L.) were selected as host fruits for this study. In the "no-choice" experiments, the type of host fruit significantly influenced the number and duration of fruit visits by B. zonata females. Banana was the most visited fruit, while papaya had the longest visit duration. Despite differences in fruit characteristics, no significant variation was observed in the number or duration of ovipositions among the fruits, and no oviposition activity was recorded on guava. In the "choice" experiments, the duration of fruit visits and the number of oviposition attempts varied significantly among the host fruits. Interestingly, guava was the only fruit where B. zonata females exhibited oviposition activity, while no oviposition behavior was observed on banana and papaya. These findings provide insights into the behavioral preferences of B. zonata females, which can inform pest management strategies. Incorporating this knowledge into biological control programs may contribute to reducing agricultural losses caused by this pest.

Behavioral studies play a crucial role in assessing food utilization in insects. However, there exists a gap in our understanding of the phenotypic plasticity in Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and how it impacts their growth, development, and potential for plant damage. This study aimed to investigate the phenotypic plasticity of S. litura, with a focus on its immature stages, and evaluate the consequences of plant damage and pest management. We conducted in vitro experiments using both a standard artificial diet and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L., Solanaceae) plants to assess the growth, development, survival, longevity, reproductive capacity, and egg-laying capability of S. litura larvae and adults. A type II functional response was estimated for all larval instars, utilizing the Likelihood Holling's Disk model, which provided two key coefficients: the search rate (a) and handling time (Th). Our findings revealed that sixth instars exhibited exceptional agility and efficiency, requiring the shortest time to process each milligram of diet compared with other larval stages. Moreover, when larvae were fed on tobacco, they displayed the shortest developmental time and the highest fecundity. This trend extended to pupal weight, pupal duration, pupal emergence, fecundity, and longevity, which were all significantly higher in individuals fed on tobacco. Additionally, S. litura larvae that fed on tobacco exhibited greater efficiency in converting digested food and lower approximate digestibility compared to larvae fed the artificial diet. These results underscore the importance of focusing on the management of fourth, fifth, and sixth instars, which have the potential to cause severe plant damage. Understanding the functional and nutritional response of S. litura larvae enhances the efficiency of integrated pest management strategies (IPM) at early stages while minimizing ecological impact.

The polyphagous insect pest, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) has shown a high propensity for developing resistance to insecticides. Chemical control remains the most widely employed method for managing B. tabaci populations across various crops, including cotton. Consequently, a comprehensive analysis of several commercially available insecticides were undertaken. This study aimed to monitor the insecticide resistance in cotton B. tabaci field populations to insecticides (pyriproxyfen, acetamiprid, imidacloprid, diafenthiuron, dimethoate and spirotetramat) using the leaf dip bioassay method. The research was conducted over six years (2016–2021) at the Insecticide Resistance Laboratory, Entomological Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan (31.404975º N; 73.0505453º E). The results revealed a very low level of resistance to spirotetramat (2.94–17.76), a low to moderate level of resistance to pyriproxyfen (4.81–25.96) and diafenthiuron (20.57–30.09), a high level of resistance to acetamiprid (75.83-100.65) and dimethoate (53.76–96.08) and a very high level of resistance was recorded to imidacloprid (101.67-201.67). This study provides baseline data on the current insecticide resistance status of B. tabaci populations in cotton crops and offers a foundation for monitoring future resistance developments. The findings suggest that the repeated use of insecticides from the same chemical group should be avoided. It is recommended that the judicious use of novel insecticides, within the framework Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM), can enhance the effectiveness of control measures and ensure the sustainable management of B. tabaci populations.

BACKGROUNDAcrylamide-based bait has super water absorption making it highly attractive to subterranean termites that are lured by wood with high water content. This study investigated the control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites. In particular, we evaluated the water-absorption capacity, attractiveness to subterranean termites, and control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites through wooden blocks (Populus deltoides and three types of particleboards).RESULTSThe results indicated a substantial water absorption capacity of acrylamide (70.6%; control: 14.8%) and a strong attraction for feeding subterranean termites (P. deltoides: 198 highest; 81 lowest subterranean termites individuals; combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 168 highest; 36 lowest subterranean termites individuals). When acrylamide was combined with boric acid at the highest concentration, it resulted in the lowest wood consumption rates (P. deltoides: 24.1%; control: 63.8%, combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 32.5%; control: 62.1%).CONCLUSIONSIn conclusion, this research supports the commercial viability of employing innovative acrylamide-based toxic baits and particleboards for subterranean termite management. (c) 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. Conventional termite control methods fall short, while our study highlights the success of novel acrylamide-based baits in termite attraction and control. When used in tandem with innovative particleboard blocks, a potent termite-resistant solution emerges. Our eco-friendly approach signals a game-changer in termite management, ushering in a sustainable pest control era. image

The maize crop is highly susceptible to damage caused by its primary pests, which poses considerable challenges in manually identifying and controlling them at various larval developmental stages. To mitigate this issue, we propose an automated classification system aimed at identifying the different larval developmental stages of 23 instars of 4 major lepidopteran pests: the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guen & eacute;e; Lepidoptera: Crambidae), the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), the oriental armyworm, Mythimna separata (Walker; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Employing 5 distinct Convolutional Neural Network architectures-Convnext, Densenet121, Efficientnetv2, Mobilenet, and Resnet-we aimed to automate the process of identifying these larval developmental stages. Each model underwent fine-tuning using 2 different optimizers: stochastic gradient descent with momentum and adaptive moment estimation (Adam). Among the array of models tested, Densenet121, coupled with the Adam optimizer, exhibited the highest classification accuracy, achieving an impressive 96.65%. The configuration performed well in identifying the larval development stages of all 4 pests, with precision, recall, and F1 score evaluation indicators reaching 98.71%, 98.66%, and 98.66%, respectively. Notably, the model was ultimately tested in a natural field environment, demonstrating that Adam_Densenet121 model achieved an accuracy of 90% in identifying the 23 instars of the 4 pests. The application of transfer learning methodology showcased its effectiveness in automating the identification of larval developmental stages, underscoring promising implications for precision-integrated pest management strategies in agriculture.

Dengue fever is a viral disease caused by one of four dengue stereotypes (Flavivirus: Flaviviridae) that are primarily transmitted by Aedes albopictus (Skuse) and Aedes aegypti (L.). To safeguard public health, it is crucial to conduct surveys that examine the factors favouring the presence of these species. Our study surveyed 42 councils across four towns within the Bhakkar district of Punjab Province, by inspecting man-made or natural habitats containing standing water. First, door-to-door surveillance teams from the district health department were assigned to each council to surveillance Aedes species and dengue cases. Second, data collection through surveillance efforts, and validation procedures were implemented, and the verified data was uploaded onto the Dengue Tracking System by Third Party Validation teams. Third, data were analysed to identify factors influencing dengue fever cases. The findings demonstrated the following: (1) Predominantly, instances were discerned among individuals who had a documented history of having travelled beyond the confines of the province. (2) Containers associated with evaporative air coolers and tyre shops were responsible for approximately 30% of the Aedes developmental sites. (4) Variability in temperature was responsible for approximately 45% of the observed differences in the quantity of recorded Aedes mosquito developmental sites. (5) Implementation of dengue prevention initiatives precipitated a 50% reduction in Aedes-positive containers, alongside a notable 70% decline in reported cases of dengue fever during the period spanning 2019 to 2020, while the majority of reported cases were of external origin. Aedes control measures substantially curtailed mosquito populations and lowered vector-virus interactions. Notably, local dengue transmission was eliminated through advanced and effective Aedes control efforts, emphasising the need for persistent surveillance and eradication of larval habitats in affected regions.

Insect–plant interactions within ecological systems have captivated scientists for over several years, particularly focusing on agricultural pests and their extensive impact on plant health. Despite the article emphasis on feeding patterns, it is essential to highlight the significance of feeding patterns and types of mouthparts in insect herbivores, which are pivotal in understanding insect–plant interactions within ecological systems. In response to insect attacks, plants undergo dynamic biochemical alterations, resulting in the stimulated synthesis of both direct and indirect defense mechanisms. We elucidated the crucial need to understand insect feeding patterns and their diverse feeding mechanisms and navigated through the intricacies of chewing and piercing–sucking herbivores, shedding light on their diverse feeding mechanisms and behavioral adaptations while invading new hosts. This review reveals the direct correlation between insect feeding patterns and the resultant plant damage. From biochemical alterations in plants to the activation of defense mechanisms, including the jasmonic acid and salicylic acid pathways, Ca2+ flux, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, and other responses, are triggered when insect exposure was detected on different plants. Furthermore, the review unravels the ecological implications of these interactions, emphasizing the significance of comprehending these interactions in devising effective pest management strategies. Conclusively, this review aims to underscore the importance of understanding insect feeding patterns and their associated elicitors and effectors.

Global warming and climate change have favored the resurgence of arthropod pests and their short lifecycle. The massive use of synthetic chemicals for insect pest control has indirectly favored global warming, ecotoxicity, and insecticide resistance in agricultural arthropod pests. Additionally, the increasing population of the world required more food, and a significant proportion of the agricultural produced is deteriorated by arthropod pests and other biotic and abiotic factors. Recently, nanotechnology has revolutionized the agricultural industries in the current era. Extremely small size and physiomorphic properties of nanomaterials have attracted the interest of researchers to develop nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, and nano-herbicides that have overwhelmed the aforementioned problems and increase crop productivity. Micronutrient based nano-pesticides like Ag, ZnO, TiO2, Cu, and SiO2 have not only enhanced the arthropod pest's biogenicity but also boost-up crop productivity. There are some apprehensions regarding nanomaterial synthesis and usage as nano-pesticides but the physio-morphic characteristics of nanostructured metals offers a cheap and excellent solution for pest control. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the global trend in nanomaterial usage for controlling important agricultural arthropod pests. A bibliometric analysis was conducted to evaluate the research landscape and identify key trends in this field. The review encompasses various aspects, including the emergence of chemical pesticides, the fate of pesticides in arthropod pest management, and the detrimental effects of pesticides on the ecosystem. The role of nanotechnology in agroecosystems is discussed, specifically focusing on the utilization of nanomaterials in arthropod pest management. The review provides an in-depth analysis of the role of silver, zinc, copper, titanium, gold, iron, silica, and aluminum nanoparticles in pest control, highlighting their efficacy and mechanisms of action. The findings underscore the importance of continued research and responsible implementation to overcome the limitations and harness the full potential of nanomaterials in arthropod pest management for the benefit of sustainable agriculture.

Global crop productivity is reduced by 20–40