Summary Understanding the drivers of assemblages of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is essential to leverage the benefits of AMF for plant growth and health. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are heterogeneously distributed in space even at small scale. We review the role of plant distribution in driving AMF assemblages (the passenger hypothesis), using a transposition of the conceptual framework of landscape ecology. Because rooting systems correspond to habitat patches with limited carrying capacity that differ in quality due to host‐preference effects, we suggest considering plant communities as mosaics of AMF microhabitats. We review how predictions from landscape ecology apply to plant community effects on AMF, and the existing evidence that tests these predictions. Although many studies have been conducted on the effect of plant compositional heterogeneity on AMF assemblages, they mostly focused on the effect of plant richness, while only a few investigated the effect of configurational heterogeneity, plant connectivity or plant community temporal dynamics. We propose key predictions and future prospects to fill these gaps. Considering plant communities as landscapes extends the passenger hypothesis by including a spatially explicit dimension and its associated ecological processes and may help understand and manipulate AMF assemblages at small spatial scales.

Physiological thermotolerance and behavioral thermoregulation are central to seasonal cold adaptation in ectothermic organisms. For species with enhanced mobility, behavioral responses may be of greater importance in the cold stress response. Employing the carabid beetles as a study organism, the current study compared physiological thermotolerance and behavioral thermoregulation in carabid species inhabiting cereal fields in different landscape contexts, from fine grain heterogeneous "complex" landscapes to homogenous "simple" landscapes. Physiological thermotolerance was determined via measurement of the CTmin and chill coma temperature. Behavioral responses to cold temperature exposure were determined employing a purpose built arena, and thoracic temperature measured to estimate the efficacy of the behavior as a form of behavioral thermoregulation. Results revealed an influence of landscape composition on the cold tolerance of carabid beetles, although species differed in their sensitivity to landscape intensification. A reduced effect of landscape on the thermotolerance of larger carabid beetles was observed, thought to be the consequence of greater mobility preventing local acclimation to microclimatic variation along the landscape intensification gradient. Investigation into behavioral thermoregulation of the 3 largest species revealed burrowing behavior to be the main behavioral response to cold stress, acting to significantly raise carabid body temperature. This finding highlights the importance of behavioral thermoregulation as a strategy to evade cold stress. The use of behavioral thermoregulation may negate the need to invest in physiological thermotolerance, further offering explanation for the lack of landscape effect on the physiological thermotolerance of larger carabids.

Question Habitat isolation is a major driver of biodiversity because it affects dispersal among local communities, especially for plants. Corridors are supposed to facilitate the movement of organisms and hence their effective dispersal, thereby increasing biodiversity. Hedgerows provide favorable habitats for forest plant establishment, but their role in dispersal among forest patches is still unknown. In addition, seeds can be more predated within hedgerows because animal movement is also encouraged by these corridors. We aimed to answer the question: Are plant dispersal and seed removal by animals in connected hedgerows compared with unconnected hedgerows promoted for forest plant species? Location Long-term ecological site "Zone Atelier Armorique", western France (ca. 150 km(2)). Methods We analyzed seed dispersal along two pathways in 16 woodlots: connected (least-cost pathways, i.e., optimal corridors); and unconnected high cost pathways (absence of corridor). Using a trap study, we first quantified seed rain and analyzed seed composition after trapped seeds were germinated in the greenhouse. At the same sampling points, we then analyzed the rate at which two different sized seeds were removed from seed baits by animals. Results Our results revealed no difference in the number of trapped seeds in connected and unconnected pathways, but did reveal a difference in the number and richness of viable seeds, with corridors having a positive impact. In the predation experiment, the rate of removal of small seeds was higher in connected pathways than in unconnected pathways. Conclusion Connectivity enhanced the dispersal of viable forest plant species but also the predation of small seeds, which possibly played a role in their subsequent dispersal. This work highlighted the effect of connectivity on seed dynamics within hedgerows and improves our understanding of the role of hedgerows as stepping-stones for seed dispersal among forest patches.

Intensive agriculture has profoundly altered biodiversity and trophic relationships in agricultural landscapes, leading to the deterioration of many ecosystem services such as pollination or biological control. Information on which spatiotemporal factors are simultaneously affecting crop pests and their natural enemies is required to improve conservation biological control practices. We conducted a study in 80 winter wheat crop fields distributed in three regions of Northwestern Europe (Brittany, Hauts-de-France and Wallonia), along intra-regional gradients of landscape complexity. Five taxa of major crop pests (aphids and slugs) and natural enemies (spiders, carabids, and parasitoids) were sampled three times a year, for two consecutive years. We analysed the influence of regional (meteorology), landscape (structure in both the years n and n-1) and local factors (hedge or grass strip field boundaries, and distance to boundary) on the abundance and species richness of crop-dwelling organisms, as proxies of the service/disservice they provide. Firstly, there was higher biocontrol potential in areas with mild winter climatic conditions. Secondly, natural enemy communities were less diverse and had lower abundances in landscapes with high crop and wooded continuities (sum of interconnected crop or wood surfaces), contrary to slugs and aphids. Finally, field boundaries with grass strips were more favourable to spiders and carabids than boundaries formed by hedges, while the opposite was found for crop pests, with the latter being less abundant towards the centre of the fields. We also revealed temporal modulation-and sometimes reversion-of the impact of local elements on crop biodiversity. To some extent, these results cause controversy because they show that hedgerows and woodlots should not be the unique cornerstones of agro-ecological landscape design strategies. We point out that combining woody and grassy habitats to take full advantage of the features and ecosystem services they both provide (biological pest control, windbreak effect, soil stabilization) may promote sustainable agricultural ecosystems. It may be possible to both reduce pest pressure and promote natural enemies by accounting for taxa-specific antagonistic responses to multi-scale environmental characteristics.

To analyze the scales at which landscape structure influences ecological processes, two approaches with different underlying ecological assumptions exist; the usual threshold method and the weighted-distance method. We used abundance of species to test if the combination of weighted-distance and threshold approaches improves the explained variance of landscape metrics. We developed a workflow using the two approaches to calculate metrics computed at multiple scales. The latter was developed using weighted metrics based on different weighted-distance functions, and one metric could be selected for more than one spatial scale. Then, we tested the explained variance of species distribution (the activity-density of Abax parallelepipedus) by these two approaches applied independently and then together in modeling a specific ecological response. The combination of metrics computed at multiple scales calculated by both weighted-distance and threshold method improved the predictive performance of the models. More precisely, adding metrics derived from the weighted-distance method to the threshold method significantly increased the explained variance when using the same environmental variables. The mean R2 values of the selected model for the threshold method was 0.34 ± 0.10, 0.49 ± 0.11 with the weighted-distance method, and reached 0.71 ± 0.07 with the two methods combined. These results demonstrate the importance of combining metrics using the weighted-distance method and the threshold method. In addition, activity-density was better explained by metrics selected at multiple scales. This study highlights the importance of combining threshold and weighted-distance method at several scales to improve the explanation of ecological responses based on species abundance.

In the current context of global urbanization, interdisciplinary research is needed to identify planning and management practices in urban green spaces (UGS) that would enhance both biodiversity and visitors’ well-being. The perception of landscape heterogeneity, a core ecological concept, has been demonstrated to have a positive impact on visitors’ psychological restoration. In order to apply these findings within UGS to planning and management practices, we need to characterize visitors’ perception of landscape heterogeneity. We gathered data on 390 visitors’ perception of landscape heterogeneity. Our results highlighted that visitors perceive landscape heterogeneity through the mixing of different heights of three vegetation strata and flower areas. Planning and management practices should enhance this landscape aspect within UGS to simultaneously promote biodiversity and visitors’ psychological well-being.

In recent times, the focus in urban park management has shifted from mere aesthetics to the difficult task of striking a balance between ecology and the aesthetic outlay of those parks. Park managers design the spatial arrangement, the structure and the ecological diversity of vegetation to mimic natural ecosystems. However, the ecological benefit is often associated with a decrease in the aesthetic value for users. To better understand this trade-off, we eye-tracked 196 users in Rennes (France) to test if ‘ecological’ management of woody edges was in accordance with their aesthetic preferences and ecological perception. We identified which were the visual areas of interest for users in four types of managed woody edges and analysed which were considered as the most aesthetic and the most ecologically valuable. Finally, we analysed if both aesthetic user preferences and ‘ecological’ management of woody edges were compatible. Based on a classification of increasing management complexity of woody edges, we showed that users’ aesthetic preferences were mainly focused on tree and shrub layers, while users identified the herb and shrub layers as the most favourable area for maintaining biodiversity. Thus, the more complex the edge, the more the relationship between aesthetic preferences and ecological management is for park management. More precisely, in complex woody edge structures, some vegetation layers such as shrub could represent a specific lever to fulfil both aesthetic and ecological purposes.

During road construction, stormwater ponds are created to address sanitation, water treatment and the containment of any accidental pollution issues. These environments are not intended to be habitats, so exclosure measures (e.g. fences, barriers) are implemented to prevent animals to gain access to them. However, the modification of the natural landscape for human needs resulted in the disappearance of most wetlands. Our hypothesis was that depending on the water pollutant concentrations, the stormwater water ponds could serve as refuge habitat for wetland species like amphibians. Thus, we evaluated the suitability of stormwater ponds as a habitat for amphibians by studying 82 such structures in the agricultural plain of Bas-Rhin. The proportion of stormwater ponds hosting amphibians and specific species abundances and richness were quantified as community parameters. They were explained using factors such as pond design (e.g. size, depth, slopes), road-induced pollutants, land use and exclosure measures. Significance of these factors was assessed by boosted regression tree models. Species-dependent effects were studied using detrended correspondence analysis. Amphibians were found in 84% of stormwater ponds, with an average of 19.51 adults and 2.44 species per pond. We found 83% of species previously detected in Bas-Rhin, including rare and protected ones. Neither exclosure measures nor pollutant concentrations were correlated with community parameters. The best explanatory factors were land use and pond design. For ponds with pollutant concentrations similar to those quantified in this study, we recommend reallocating the efforts made for exclosure to improve pond design and to the creation of semi-natural ponds as additional compensatory measures. Design of stormwater ponds should be systematically validated by a herpetologist to avoid mortal traps. Ponds should be large and have a permanent minimum water level even in droughts.

Ecosystem services related to biodiversity, including cultural services, are essential for agricultural production such as viticulture. In agricultural landscapes, pesticides and mechanization threaten biodiversity, lead to landscape simplification and may reduce ecosystem services. On the other hand, consumers are more and more aware of environmental issues in food production. We investigated if landscape complexity, including soil management practices, was (i) appreciated by visitors and (ii) presented by winegrowers and tourism professionals in the French vineyards with the designation of geographical origin (DGO) 'Coteaux du Layon'. Our goal was to determine if landscape complexity provides cultural ecosystem services such as aesthetics beneficial for the wine trade and the DGO region's attractiveness. We analyzed the iconographic content and the composition of landscape photographs on 50 websites to investigate if local winegrowers and tourism professionals associate biodiversity in the landscape and soil management practices with wine promotion. A questionnaire was realized to study the perception of local landscapes by interviewing 192 visitors of the region. The benefits of landscape complexity and soil management practices favoring biodiversity in viticulture were known and appreciated by many visitors, even if photographs of wine and traditional practices appeared to encourage wine purchasing. Local winegrowers' representation of the DGO region only partially served these preferences; instead they mainly presented the wine-growing region by photographs focusing on wine bottles and vineyards. Consumer's preferences showed that complex landscapes could provide cultural ecosystem services that winegrowers are still less aware of. Therefore, complexity-targeted landscape planning including vegetation cover in soil management should be included in policy recommendations as agroecological measures for sustainable DGO production.

1. Increasing landscape heterogeneity by restoring semi‐natural elements to reverse farmland biodiversity declines is not always economically feasible or acceptable to farmers due to competition for land. We hypothesized that increasing the heterogeneity of the crop mosaic itself, hereafter referred to as crop heterogeneity, can have beneficial effects on within‐field plant diversity. 2. Using a unique multi‐country dataset from a cross‐continent collaborative project covering 1,451 agricultural fields within 432 landscapes in Europe and Canada, we assessed the relative effects of compositional and configurational crop heterogeneity on within‐field plant diversity components. We also examined how these relationships were modulated by the position within the field. 3. We found strong positive effects of configurational crop heterogeneity on within‐field plant alpha and gamma diversity in field interiors. These effects were as high as the effect of semi‐natural cover. In field borders, effects of crop heterogeneity were limited to alpha diversity. We suggest that a heterogeneous crop mosaic may overcome the high negative impact of management practices on plant diversity in field interiors, whereas in field borders, where plant diversity is already high, landscape effects are more limited. 4. Synthesis and applications. Our study shows that increasing configurational crop heterogeneity is beneficial to within‐field plant diversity. It opens up a new effective and complementary way to promote farmland biodiversity without taking land out of agricultural production. We therefore recommend adopting manipulation of crop heterogeneity as a specific, effective management option in future policy measures, perhaps adding to agri‐environment schemes, to contribute to the conservation of farmland plant diversity.

In this chapter, we present the relationships between hedgerow network landscapes and the spatio-temporal distribution of forest carabid beetles. These species may be split into three groups according to their adaptation to forest cover fragmentation. Corridor species may be found all over the network of hedgerows as long as hedgerows are of good quality and the hedgerow network dense enough. Green lanes are key features for these species. Landscape history plays a role for the distribution of forest carabid beetles, as these species may exhibit an extinction debt due to their low dispersal in dynamic landscapes.

Agricultural intensification is a major driver of wild bee decline. Vineyards may be inhabited by plant and animal species, especially when the inter-row space is vegetated with spontaneous vegetation or cover crops. Wild bees depend on floral resources and suitable nesting sites which may be found in vineyard inter-rows or in viticultural landscapes. Inter-row vegetation is managed by mulching, tillage, and/or herbicide application and results in habitat degradation when applied intensively. Here, we hypothesize that lower vegetation management intensities, higher floral resources, and landscape diversity affect wild bee diversity and abundance dependent on their functional traits. We sampled wild bees semi-quantitatively in 63 vineyards representing different vegetation management intensities across Europe in 2016. A proxy for floral resource availability was based on visual flower cover estimations. Management intensity was assessed by vegetation cover (%) twice a year per vineyard. The Shannon Landscape Diversity Index was used as a proxy for landscape diversity within a 750 m radius around each vineyard center point. Wild bee communities were clustered by country. At the country level, between 20 and 64 wild bee species were identified. Increased floral resource availability and extensive vegetation management both affected wild bee diversity and abundance in vineyards strongly positively. Increased landscape diversity had a small positive effect on wild bee diversity but compensated for the negative effect of low floral resource availability by increasing eusocial bee abundance. We conclude that wild bee diversity and abundance in vineyards is efficiently promoted by increasing floral resources and reducing vegetation management frequency. High landscape diversity further compensates for low floral resources in vineyards and increases pollinating insect abundance in viticulture landscapes.

Agricultural landscape homogenization has detrimental effects on biodiversity and key ecosystem services. Increasing agricultural landscape heterogeneity by increasing seminatural cover can help to mitigate biodiversity loss. However, the amount of seminatural cover is generally low and difficult to increase in many intensively managed agricultural landscapes. We hypothesized that increasing the heterogeneity of the crop mosaic itself (hereafter "crop heterogeneity") can also have positive effects on biodiversity. In 8 contrasting regions of Europe and North America, we selected 435 landscapes along independent gradients of crop diversity and mean field size. Within each landscape, we selected 3 sampling sites in 1, 2, or 3 crop types. We sampled 7 taxa (plants, bees, butterflies, hoverflies, carabids, spiders, and birds) and calculated a synthetic index of multitrophic diversity at the landscape level. Increasing crop heterogeneity was more beneficial for multitrophic diversity than increasing seminatural cover. For instance, the effect of decreasing mean field size from 5 to 2.8 ha was as strong as the effect of increasing seminatural cover from 0.5 to 11%. Decreasing mean field size benefited multitrophic diversity even in the absence of seminatural vegetation between fields. Increasing the number of crop types sampled had a positive effect on landscape-level multitrophic diversity. However, the effect of increasing crop diversity in the landscape surrounding fields sampled depended on the amount of seminatural cover. Our study provides large-scale, multitrophic, cross-regional evidence that increasing crop heterogeneity can be an effective way to increase biodiversity in agricultural landscapes without taking land out of agricultural production.

Land-use intensification at the field and landscape scale is a strong driver for declining biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. Vineyards are characterised by non-productive inter-rows, which could potentially host diverse plant communities. Mulching, tillage or herbicides are used to mitigate the competition between vines and the inter-row vegetation. As plant species with the same set of functional traits will respond similarly to environmental filters like management measures, knowledge about plant trait-environment-relations can be used to predict community and ecosystem processes which are essential for preserving ecosystem services like soil erosion mitigation. We hypothesized that higher vegetation management intensity reduces plant (functional) diversity, changes functional traits and community composition. Across Europe, four viticultural regions in Austria, France, Spain and Romania, which comprised 78 vineyards differing in vegetation management intensity (bare soil, temporary and permanent vegetation cover), were selected for sampling vascular plant diversity. Around each vineyard, the surrounding landscape composition and landscape diversity was investigated within a 750 m radius. Rao's quadratic entropy as a measure of functional diversity was calculated based on a selection of plant functional traits. The effects of management and landscape variables on species richness, functional traits, functional diversity and vegetation cover were analysed by generalized linear mixed models and random forests (RF). Furthermore, plant community composition was analysed with non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). Higher management intensities resulted in lower species richness, functional diversity and vegetation cover. The country with the related divergent edaphoclimatic conditions was a significant factor affecting most diversity and functional trait parameters, whereas landscape diversity increased plant species richness only slightly. Vegetation management intensity had the highest explanatory power for species richness, functional diversity and most functional traits according to RF analysis. Consequently, plant functional traits like a higher coverage of ruderals and annuals could be clearly related to bare soil management. Furthermore, the type of cover crops influenced the relationship between annual and perennial plant species, Grime plant strategy types and species diversity. Accordingly, NMDS showed a separation between permanent vegetation cover and bare soil vineyards. The overall positive effect of extensive management and the use of diverse cover crops or spontaneous vegetation in vineyard inter-rows should be better implemented in agricultural policies to support both, biodiversity and ecosystem provision.