The eastward dispersal of wheat (Triticum spp.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) during the Holocene was a key process in the development of early civilizations and social complexity across Central and East Eurasia. Unlike the westward expansion into Europe, which occurred across more continuous environmental gradients, this eastward movement traversed fundamentally different climatic regimes and topographies. This presented significant adaptive challenges to these crops. While previous research has established a spatiotemporal framework for this dispersal, a systematic understanding of the niche dynamics, differentiation pathways, and underlying environmental drivers of the process of this large-scale adaptation process has been lacking. This study integrates 954 archaeobotanical records with paleoclimatic models. We applied machine learning algorithms, including Principal Component Analysis, Random Forest, and Maximum Entropy models, to quantitatively reconstruct the Holocene niche trajectories of both cereals. Our results reveal a clear process of niche evolution from convergence to divergence. In the Early Holocene, the niches of the two species largely overlapped. Initial separation occurred during the Mid-Holocene, driven primarily by human water management practices. This divergence intensified in the Late Holocene, driven by the interplay between physiological adaptation to natural environmental gradients and human niche construction. This gradual differentiation ultimately produced a functionally complementary agricultural system. Wheat became specialized in environments with relatively favorable hydrothermal conditions. In contrast, the greater environmental tolerance of barley made it a key species for expanding agriculture into high-altitude and arid marginal zones. This study provides new quantitative ecological evidence on how key crops co-adapted with human niche construction practices while developing functionally complementary ecological role with wheat occupying optimal hydrological niches and barley adapting to marginal environments. This dual-layered adaptation enhanced the resilience and spatial coverage of prehistoric agricultural systems.

This study reinterprets a selection of elite tombs at the Majiayuan Cemetery (4th–3rd centuries BCE) as belonging to Xirong ritual specialists. Analysis reveals a stratified ritual system: beaded caps served as widespread elite cosmograms, while specialized, hip-suspended bronze mirrors were restricted to a few. Situating these objects within broader Inner Asian traditions demonstrates the caps connected wearers to the spirit world, and that the mirrors functioned as active spirit-conduits, marking their bearers as specialized mediators. Examination of the material evidence further reveals Xirong ritual as a purposeful synthesis, selectively adapting imported and local mirror technologies to serve a coherent local cosmology. Mortuary parity between these specialists and martial elites—sharing high-status goods like chariots—indicates spiritual authority was a foundational pillar of Xirong power, valued equally with martial prowess. This interpretation of the Xirong places them as agentive architects of a hybrid ritual system and as vital cultural intermediaries on the Warring States frontier.

Despite a notable increase during recent decades in the application of anthropological approaches and archaeometric analyses in Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeology in China, studies relating to the post-Qin period of Chinese history (after 221 BC) continue to focus on social centres and elite tombs, and to rely on historical texts to validate archaeological discoveries. This article examines the extent to which archaeometric analyses might be applied more beneficially in post-Qin contexts and explores current barriers to the wider undertaking of these methods within Chinese archaeology.

During the Middle-to-Late Neolithic period (7000–3800 BP), Shaanxi Province served as a critical juncture in the transmission of crops. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), and rice (Oryza sativa) spread westwards into the Gansu–Qinghai region and southwards into the Sichuan basin, whilst wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were transmitted through the Shaanxi region to the middle and lower Yellow River regions. Neolithic settlements are found in all three of the main geomorphic settings in Shaanxi: the Loess Plateau, plains, and mountainous areas. While the extent to which crop diffusion and distribution were influenced by environmental changes has previously been highlighted, the strategies of crop utilization in different geomorphic contexts have not been specified. Based on crop-remains data from 33 archaeological sites in Shaanxi, this study uses statistical modeling and ArcGIS-based spatial analysis to investigate prehistoric crop utilization in Shaanxi during the Neolithic period and its environmental determinants. Our results indicate the following: (1) The dominant crops in the Neolithic Shaanxi were foxtail millet and broomcorn millet, with the proportion of foxtail millet increasing over time. (2) The Guanzhong Plain was the earliest region in Shaanxi to adopt millet and rice (~7000–3800 BP). Subsequently, millet and rice had influenced the Qinba Mountains by ~5000 BP at the latest. By ~3800 BP, millet had affected the entire northern Shaanxi Plateau, with rice only found at the Shimao site around 4000 BP. Finally, wheat and barley influenced the Guanzhong region and the Qinba region in Shaanxi around 4000 BP. In addition, rice, wheat, and barley mainly enhanced agricultural diversity in the Guanzhong Plain and Qinba Mountains but had limited impact in the Northern Plateau, where cattle and sheep have enriched subsistence strategies since about 4500 BP. (3) Environmental factors affected the distribution of crops to different extents—elevation and river proximity had minimal effects on foxtail millet and broomcorn millet but significantly influenced the presence of rice, wheat, and barley. These factors led to a spatial pattern where millet dominated in the Northern Plateau, while the Guanzhong Plain and Qinba Mountains developed mixed farming systems incorporating all four seed types. This study provides new insights into the environmental mechanisms influencing crop diffusion and prehistoric human adaptation during the Neolithic period in Shaanxi.

Over the past decade, the rapid development of geospatial tools has significantly expanded the scope of archaeobotanical research, enabling unprecedented insights into ancient plant domestication, agricultural practices, and human-environment interactions. Within the Chinese context, where rich archaeobotanical records intersect with complex socio-ecological histories, GIS-driven approaches have revealed nuanced patterns of crop dispersal, settlement dynamics, and landscape modification. However, despite these advances, current applications remain largely exploratory, constrained by fragmented datasets and underutilized spatial-statistical methods. This paper argues that a more robust integration of large-scale archaeobotanical datasets with advanced ArcGIS functionalities—such as kernel density estimation, least-cost path analysis, and predictive modelling—is essential to address persistent gaps in the field. By synthesizing case studies from key Chinese Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, we demonstrate how spatial analytics can elucidate (1) spatiotemporal trends in plant use, (2) anthropogenic impacts on vegetation, and (3) the feedback loops between subsistence strategies and landscape evolution. Furthermore, we highlight the challenges of data standardization, scale dependency, and interdisciplinary collaboration in archaeobotanical ArcGIS. Ultimately, this study underscores the imperative for methodological harmonization and computational innovation to unravel the intricate relationships between ancient societies, agroecological systems, and long-term environmental change.

From the fifth century onward, the creation of monumental 'Big' Buddhas (dafo (sic)(sic)), carved from living rock, became a significant cultural and religious phenomenon across Asia. This paper takes the Sichuan Basin as a case study, given its high concentration of rock-carved religious (RCR) sites. Notably, the number of monumental Buddha sculptures in the region increased significantly between 700 and 1200 ce. This paper examines the extent to which the construction of these Big Buddhas represents the appropriation of Buddhist RCR sites by non-local political and religious elites as a form of social control, and it is herein proposed that these social and religious elites commissioned and maintained such projects to reinforce authority and integrate local religious practices into institutional Buddhism. Since the construction of Big Buddhas required vast resources, labour and coordination, this paper examines those Big Buddhas which were left unfinished in order to understand the criteria for both success and failure, while also considering how these sculptures, as acts of social appropriation, mediated between the mundane and the divine, the imperial periphery and the centre, functioning as both spiritual symbols and political instruments.

The Tibetan Plateau and surrounding regions played a pivotal role in the spread of foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) and broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ) since the late Neolithic period. However, previous research failed to analyze the spatiotemporal distribution and associated environmental factors. Herein, we collected foxtail and broomcorn millet data from 113 Late Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in the Tibetan Plateau region to reconstruct the spatiotemporal distribution, and integrated palaeoclimatic data to identify the extent of environmental factors influencing the distribution using the Maximum Entropy (MaxENT) model and Growing Degree Day (GDD) model. Our results show that the spatiotemporal distribution of millets can be classified into three routes and four stages during 6000 - 3500 cal yr BP. Millet agriculture thrived predominantly in areas below 2500 m asl with average summer temperature ranging from 15 to 25 degrees C. Temperature exerts the most significant influence on the dispersal process, followed by precipitation, distance from reliable water sources, and altitude. These findings provide important environmental insights into the spatiotemporal distribution of millets and dispersal routes surrounding the Tibetan Plateau.

Using zooarchaeological methods, this article examines and discusses the faunal remains recovered from a Han dynasty non-elite residential site in Yishengci, situated in the southeastern corner of the ancient city of Wan (Nanyang, Henan Province). Despite its limited size, the assemblage provides valuable insights into the local economy, which the relative taxonomy suggests was predominantly agricultural, with pigs, cattle, and dogs being the most prevalent species. Pigs played a crucial role as meat producers, with cattle and dogs also contributing to a lesser extent. The evidence points to the exploitation of animals for traction in addition to the manufacture of animal-derived products including the use of horns and antlers for tool-making. Patterns in faunal mortality and biometry suggest that animals served as a meat source for the urban population and supported intensive small-scale agriculture in the surrounding area. Population size, land management and high-yield farming production were important factors that shaped, and were shaped by animal use at Yishengci. This research contributes to a better understanding of the subsistence strategies that supported the increasing urbanization during the early empire, supplementing what is predominantly known from historical texts and iconography.

This study examines faunal assemblages from the Proto-Zhou sites of Sunjia and Xitou, in the Jing River Valley (Central Shaanxi Province), to address questions concerning the exploitation of different animal resources in the context of the Shang-Zhou dynastic transition in the 11th century BCE. Although the assemblages from Sunjia and Xitou were small and sub-optimally preserved, this study demonstrates that the inclusion of such assemblages is essential to building upon our understanding of the human exploitation of animal resources. Our zooarchaeological analysis shows an increase in husbandry, with pig farming being complemented by extensive caprine and cattle herding. A diversified use of animal resources, and especially the larger number of bovids, could have been prompted by the need for a wider and more efficient exploitation of the immediate environment, in response to growing climatic deterioration, in addition to an increase in interactions with northern pastoral communities. Identified patterns of livestock biometry and relative taxonomic abundance show various degrees of agricultural engagement and a relatively complex livestock economy, suggesting the development of socio-economic complexity in the Jing River Valley in the late second millennium BCE.

Mobile pastoralism was a key lifeway in the Late Bronze and Iron Age of Northwest China and played a crucial role in the regional socio-cultural development, as well as the formation of transregional networks. In this paper we analyse the complete faunal assemblage from House F2 in Shirenzigou, on the Eastern Tianshan Mountains, in combination with radiocarbon dating and spatial analysis, to explore local animal resources exploitation strategies and related socio-economic implications. Our results show an intensive multipurpose caprine management, while the exploitation of other domestic taxa, cattle, horses and dogs, was limited. This pastoral economy was supplemented with some hunting. The differentiated use of space in F2 indicates that basic domestic tasks were carried out in the structure, however its position within the landscape and the predominance of bone tools related to warfare and socialization activities, suggests that it was not an ordinary dwelling, it may also have served as a watch post for the summer encampment within the gully. Our findings constitute an important contribution on the discussion on animal resources exploitation strategies and their relationship with evolving socio-economic complexity in the Eastern Tianshan region in the late first millennium BCE.

The origins of composite tiles, one of the oldest forms of roofing, are still unclear. This study is based on a set of over 5000 clay tile fragments excavated from a single context in the Qiaocun site on the Chinese Loess Plateau, dated to ~ 2400–2200 BCE (Early Longshan Period). By combining morphological measurement statistics, 3D modeling, computer-based simulations, and reference to historical and archaeological records, we reconstruct the earliest known composite-tile roofing techniques and demonstrate that tile production was under a low-level standardization, with manual control forming a key agent during the roofing process. The quantitative study of the composite roof tiles from Qiaocun was then placed in its archaeological context and compared with other sites on the Loess Plateau. It was found that tile-roofed buildings were, by necessity, community projects. Such structures served as nodes in larger social communication networks; additionally, their appearance was linked to intensified social complexity in public affairs during the Longshan Period. The invention of clay tiles was associated with the inception of thick rammed-earth walls which had sufficient strength to serve as load-bearing structures for heavy tiled roofs. The roof tiles excavated from Qiaocun site indicate that the Loess Plateau was a key center for the origin and spread of composite tiles and related roofing and construction methods, suggesting a Longshan–Western Zhou tradition of roofing techniques in East Asia.

Recent advances in the three-dimensional modelling and lighting simulations provide an opportunity to engage with role of illumination in the functionality of space in archaeological contexts. The original spatial contexts of the once brightly coloured paintings and statuary of the cave temples of South, Central and East Asia provide the perfect case study since they are preserved in situ and their entire form is preserved. Visual perception is a key factor in the experience of a space. To this end, this paper presents a precis on the forms of lighting which were present in these regions during the 5th–8th centuries when these caves were being constructed before presenting data from physical and simulated lighting experiments which demonstrate the varying extents to which the interior of these caves would have been visible to devotees under different potential lighting solutions. These data are then extrapolated in order to outline the way in which lighting affected the historical functionality of the caves.

Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic variations on both macro and micro scales. This paper presents temporally and spatially contextualized faunal profiles from 27 sites in the Guanzhong () region of Shaanxi province (), PRC which date from the Early Neolithic to the Bronze Age (ca. 6000-1000 BCE). Climatic and environmental data was cross-referenced with archaeological, archaeobotanical and (where appropriate) historical sources to examine the reasons for the clear micro-transitions observed. Faunal profiles from sites in the Wei River plain (), loess plateau, and the transitional zone between them were analyzed. Animal utilization was found to vary substantially between different zones during the period under analysis. The transition in praxis between the Wei River valley and the loess plateau was not gradual. The hilly transition zone was found to have its own distinct animal exploitation pattern. These spatio-temporal differences in animal exploitation were caused by changes in both the local microclimates and the topography of the landscape in which the communities were living. Some regions apparently reverted to 'earlier' animal exploitation patterns in response to climatic changes. These environmental factors were also augmented by internal social developments and interactions with neighboring communities.

This paper is based on the study of four late to middle to late Tang Dynasty (781-907 CE) and one Song Dynasty (907-1279 CE) Buddhist sites which are set within a kilometre of one another to the south of the ancient centre of Rongxian, Zigong, Sichuan. The question addressed is whether these five religious sites could have existed as distinct entities, or if over time they became part of a unified whole. Traditionally such sites are considered as independent works of art divorced from their landscape and social context. Since the connections demonstrated in this paper indicate a unity of purpose we suggest that a more holistic approach to the study of such monuments is worthwhile. This paper proposes that although these sites were originally distinct entities during the Tang, they came to be connected by a pilgrimage route defined by the construction of a pagoda in the Song Dynasty.

Buddhism spread from northern India throughout the Asian continent from the first century BC onwards. As it spread, it changed and adapted to suit the new peoples and customs with which it came into contact. In recent years, studies have been undertaken on the landscape archaeology of Indian, Central Asian and Southeast Asian Buddhism. By focusing on China, this study represents a preliminary step in attempting to illuminate a new aspect of early Buddhist practice in China. It considers the chronological implications of the way in which the sites are positioned within the landscape. The study is based on survey work and site visits undertaken over the last five years, during the course of which certain patterns began to emerge. Based on these observations, an initial hypothesis was formed which states that the visibility of the locations into which cave sites are carved increases over time. Visibility is taken as the presence or prominence of a site within the physical landscape. This study focuses only on rock-cut cave-temples because they can still be clearly seen within their (nearly) original landscape settings. They can also be dated with relative accuracy on stylistic grounds. The same cannot be said of surface religious structures.