Handheld controllers are standard in immersive virtual reality (iVR), but the rise of natural hand-based interactions exposes the limitations of hand gestures, especially for point-and-click tasks with graphical user interfaces (GUI). This shows the need to explore alternative hands-free selection methods. Unlike most studies focusing on the selection task itself, this work evaluates the impact of such methods on multiple dimensions when selections occur alongside another primary task. The tested methods were: head gaze + dwell, leaning, and voice; eye gaze + dwell, leaning, blinking, and voice; and voice-only. Controllers served as the baseline. Methods were further analyzed by pointing and confirming mechanisms. Four dimensions were analyzed: (1) iVR experience, (2) user satisfaction, (3) usability, and (4) efficiency and effectiveness. With 72 participants, results show hands-free methods provide comparable experiences to controllers, suggesting selection methods have a lower impact on the user experience when users focus on a primary task.

Gamification is increasingly used to make non-game contexts more engaging, yet integrating its elements into professional training applications often requires significant development effort. This work introduces GaToo (from “Gamification Tool”), a modular and reusable gamification plugin built for the Unity engine, designed to simplify this process and reduce the need for custom implementation. The plugin provides a structured set of components, including missions, steps, challenges and achievements, together with a base editor interface that facilitates configuration and management. To ensure broad applicability, it also includes complementary mechanisms that enable integration both in applications still under development and in existing applications, depending on the level of access to their source code. A preliminary study with 15 experienced Unity users was conducted to assess the usability of the plugin interface. The results indicated a score of 82 on the System Usability Scale, considered ’Excellent,’ supporting the ease of use of the plugin editor. By offering a flexible and extensible solution, the plugin allows developers and researchers to concentrate on the design and evaluation of gamification strategies, while minimizing the technical overhead of implementation.

This study investigates the impact of virtual agent realism in immersive Virtual Reality (iVR) on foreign-language vocabulary learning. Specifically, it compares the effectiveness of a realistic (human-like) pedagogical virtual agent versus an abstract (non-human-like) one in delivering instructional content. A between-subjects experiment was conducted with 17 participants, divided into two groups, were exposed to either the realistic or abstract agent in an iVR Search-and-Find vocabulary learning task. Learning outcomes were measured using pre- and post-tests (based on word matching translations for 10 German-Portuguese item pairs), while presence-related experiences were assessed via the Igroup Presence Questionnaire and Temple Presence Inventory. Both groups demonstrated significant vocabulary acquisition improvements. However, no significant differences were found between the realistic and abstract agent groups in either learning outcomes or presence scores. The findings suggest that the visual realism of virtual agents may not significantly influence language learning effectiveness or user presence in these iVR environments. These preliminary results imply that abstract agents could be as effective as realistic agents for this type of foreign-language instruction, potentially reducing development resources without compromising learning benefits.

Immersive Reality is increasingly adopted across diverse sectors, including industry, education, and training. However, creating immersive content is frequently identified as a complex task that requires specialized programming skills. This systematic review follows the PRISMA framework to survey the existing literature on authoring tools for immersive Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality, critically analyzing their technical characteristics, integration of emerging technologies, and limitations across 135 eligible studies. The data reveals a strong emphasis on addressing these technical barriers, showing that 116 of the reviewed tools require no programming expertise and utilize visual or demonstrative interactions instead. Regarding interaction, controller-based input is the primary standard (83 studies) due to its precision for complex UI tasks, while hand tracking (41 studies) is also frequently employed to enable direct manipulation. Regarding emerging technologies, the review identifies 28 studies that utilize Artificial Intelligence (AI) to assist users, while digital twins (DTs) and WebXR systems are each featured in 11 studies. Furthermore, a limitation in expressiveness was identified in 84 studies, referring to the degree of functional and representational capacity that a tool supports. In these cases, tools lack sufficient flexibility to implement complex logic, advanced workflows, or custom behaviors, thereby constraining the range of tasks or use cases they can support. Finally, approximately 26% of the analyzed literature is characterized as preliminary studies, with the Training & Simulation sector reporting the highest proportion (40%). Ultimately, this review demonstrates that while most research has focused on making tools easy to use, these solutions still lack functional expressiveness and the ability to handle complex tasks, as well as empirical validation.

Pursuing realism has been constant and considered computer graphics’ “holy grail” (Chalmers and Ferko, 2008). From entertainment to training simulations to research, realism offers a wide range of possibilities. Immersive Virtual Reality came as a technology capable of providing higher levels of immersion by isolating users from real-world stimuli, focusing their attention and senses on the virtual experience (Mel Slater, 2009). This technology unlocked new ways to push the boundaries of realism even further.

IntroductionImmersive virtual reality (iVR) offers a multisensory environment for education, yet the integration of olfaction remains underexplored. This study examined whether incorporating ambient olfactory stimuli into an iVR environment enhances foreign language vocabulary retention and the user’s sense of presence.MethodsA between-subjects experiment was conducted with 59 participants who learned German vocabulary in a virtual airport scenario. Participants were assigned to one of five ambient olfactory conditions systematically selected to represent distinct quadrants of the circumplex model of affect: no scent (control), spearmint (pleasant-arousing), lavender (pleasant-calming), burning wood (unpleasant-arousing), or sewage (unpleasant-calming). Vocabulary retention was measured using matching pre- and post-tests, while subjective presence was assessed using the standardised Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQp).ResultsThe results indicated that ambient olfactory stimulation, regardless of affective valence or arousal level, did not significantly improve immediate vocabulary retention compared to the control condition. However, scent did impact the subjective experience of presence; notably, an unpleasant, high-arousal scent (burning wood) served as a distraction, significantly reducing perceived spatial presence.DiscussionThese findings establish an important boundary condition for multisensory educational VR. They demonstrate that the simple addition of ambient, affective scents as a background stimulus is insufficient to drive immediate cognitive learning gains, and may even detract from immersion if unpleasant. Multisensory iVR design must be guided by pedagogical priorities rather than novelty alone, suggesting that relying solely on ambient emotional modulation via olfaction is not a viable strategy for complex cognitive tasks.

Immersive virtual reality (iVR) is increasingly used in language learning, but its impact on learning outcomes compared to traditional methods remains unclear. This study specifically investigated the longitudinal effects of a six-session, semester-long intervention on student outcomes. Thirty-one participants were allocated by class section to either an iVR group ( n = 20 ), which engaged with the listening comprehension materials within an immersive headset, or a non-iVR control group ( n = 11 ). Each completed two standardised listening comprehension tests (Test 1 and Test 2) over time. Learning trajectories were analysed using a linear mixed-effects model, testing for a Group x Time interaction. The model revealed a borderline Group x Time interaction ( F = 3.78, p = 0.062 , Kenward-Roger ), with non-iVR participants showing a slight improvement from Test 1 to Test 2, while iVR participants declined. The estimated difference was -2.04 points ( 95% bootstrap CI: -4.18 to -0.077 ), suggesting a possible negative differential effect of iVR on learning over time. While the evidence is not definitive, these results indicate that iVR may hinder listening comprehension improvement compared to traditional methods in this context. Further research is needed to optimise iVR design and explore underlying mechanisms.

Throughout the Virtual Reality (VR) literature, we find different terms to define the same concepts as well as the same terms addressing different concepts. This issue can easily cause misinterpretations and difficulty in the analysis of papers from different authors. This work addresses this terminology confusion through a detailed analysis of current key concepts, how they have been employed, comparing them to other concepts, and proposing adaptations to their definitions to reduce conceptual overlap while preserving the original terms. In this work, we reviewed widely used terms in VR: Fidelity, Realism, Immersion, Presence, and Coherence. We also identified and discussed derivative terms, such as Place Illusion, Plausibility Illusion, Sensorimotor Contingencies, Multisensory, Virtual Content, Objective and Subjective Realism, and Objective and Subjective Internal Coherence. We proposed how these distinct concepts can be separated, merged, and linked, providing a clearer terminology for future use and discussing the implications of this terminology.

User experience and performance in Virtual Reality (VR) training solutions can be influenced by various factors, including the presence or absence of contextual elements in the environment. This study investigates the impact of environmental context on user experience and training performance by comparing a contextualised and a non-contextualised VR environment. To this end, key metrics were assessed: usability, sense of presence, user workload, user experience, and training performance. A between-subjects study was conducted with 30 participants tasked with assembling a car antenna on a virtual factory assembly line. The sample was divided into two conditions: a neutral environment containing only essential equipment, and a contextualised environment simulating a detailed factory floor. Results indicate comparable levels of usability, low user workload, and high overall presence across both conditions. Spatial presence and Completion Time regarding training performance metrics showed a statistically significant difference, with higher scores observed in the contextualised environment. The results suggest that a contextual environmental design is worthwhile for creating a more effective and efficient immersive training solution.

With the consistent adoption of iVR and growing research on the topic, it becomes fundamental to understand how the perception of Realism plays a role in the potential of iVR. This work puts forwards a hypothesis-driven theoretical model of how the perception of each multisensory stimulus (Visual, Audio, Haptic and Scent) is related to the perception of Realism of the whole experience (Subjective Realism) and, in turn, how this Subjective Realism is related to Involvement and Presence. The model was validated using a sample of 216 subjects in a multisensory iVR experience. The results indicated a good model fit and provided evidence on how the perception of Realism of Visual, Audio and Scent individually is linked to Subjective Realism. Furthermore, the results demonstrate strong evidence that Subjective Realism is strongly associated with Involvement and Presence. These results put forwards a validated questionnaire for the perception of Realism of different aspects of the virtual experience and a robust theoretical model on the interconnections of these constructs. We provide empirical evidence that can be used to optimise iVR systems for Presence, Involvement and Subjective Realism, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of iVR experiences and opening new research avenues.

Over the years, various immersive virtual training environments (iVTEs) have been developed, allowing companies to start transitioning to Virtual Reality (VR) technologies to train their personnel. This transition forces companies to start using game engines as a foundation to develop such iVTEs, which also requires a multidisciplinary team. When developing such training environments, challenges on how to present tasks to users arise. The way these tasks are presented can dictate the efficacy of the VR training application. This paper presents three different task presentation methodologies (avatar animation, videos, and instruction manual) and assesses them using 36 participants, divided into those three groups. Usability, sense of presence, satisfaction, cybersickness, and technology acceptance variables were studied and results indicated that only the total number of actions performed had differences between groups where the instruction manual reported the higher number of actions (usability) when compared to the other conditions. Therefore it was concluded that the instruction manual proved to be where users kept losing focus and making more actions. It was also concluded that all conditions had a similar sense of presence, satisfaction, cybersickness, and acceptance scores.

Immersive Virtual Reality (iVR) is a promising educational tool for learning a second/foreign language. However, interactive iVR studies remain in their infancy, with more research required to validate what and how it can be implemented. This study focuses on the English listening dimension and evaluates the impact of a realistic interactive iVR compared to traditional listening exercises. The results were favourable and indicated that interactive iVR positively impacts the users' knowledge retention compared to a traditional listening approach. Likewise, the users revealed a preference for using iVR for learning when compared to traditional listening exercises, as well as higher user satisfaction with the iVR experiment.

This paper presents a study comparing different user interface modes (Controller-Based Selection, Object Interaction, and Voice Recognition) within immersive Virtual Reality (iVR) environments for foreign language learning. Given the rapid advancements and potential of iVR in education, there is a need for focused research on optimising user interfaces for effective learning experiences. This study aimed to identify optimal interfaces for integrating iVR applications as complementary educational tools while gauging student preferences. Participants engaged in interactive learning tasks across the three conditions, with assessments focused on System Usability, Presence, User Satisfaction, Cybersickness, Learning Outcomes, and Task Duration. Findings indicate high usability across all conditions, with a preference observed for Controller-Based Selection and Object Interaction. Object Interaction showed strong motivational appeal but required more time to complete tasks than Controller-Based. Therefore, for time-constrained educational settings, the Controller-Based Selection interface is practical due to its lower physical effort requirement. Despite recent advances, our study found Voice Recognition interaction to be the least preferred interaction method, indicating a need for further technological improvements to boost its acceptance and effectiveness in educational contexts.

Cybersickness refers to the negative symptoms caused by exposure to a Virtual Reality (VR) experience. The literature is consensual that cybersickness is a key factor in an experience, as the non-existence of cybersickness provides an optimal virtual experience. Thus, it is of utmost importance to evaluate cybersickness when assessing VR applications to understand the impact of this factor on the user experience and, ultimately, on the VR application viability. However, there is a lack of Portuguese instruments to evaluate this variable. To tackle this, this aimed to translate and validate the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) to Portuguese so it can be used with the Portuguese population and maintain its psychometric properties. The new instrument was validated using a sample of 603 Portuguese subjects aged between 16 and 79. Based on the observed results, the obtained theoretical model shows that the Portuguese version of the SSQ is valid for properly evaluating cybersickness in VR experiences with Portuguese samples.

Purpose - This paper aims to generate knowledge of the impact of different virtual reality (VR) set-ups in tourism promotion regarding destination image, place attachment and behavioural intention.Design/methodology/approach - The paper presents a comparative study of the impact of different visualisation technologies (video, immersive VR and multisensory immersive VR) to promote tourism destinations. The study's dependent variables are destination image, place attachment and behaviour intention.Findings - Results show that VR content impacts these variables. Multisensory immersive VR is the preferred content type for destination promotion. It is also evidenced that female participants scored each variable higher than male participants. Males reported higher scores on the video set-up for destination image and place attachment. Behavioural intention reported higher values in the video when compared to immersive VR in both sexes.Practical implications - This paper concludes that there is a preference towards multisensory set-ups, which suggests that incorporating audiovisual and sensory elements can significantly enhance the effectiveness of VR experiences in attracting and engaging potential tourists.Originality/value - The paper contributes to the scarce body of knowledge regarding the impact of different VR factors on tourism promotion, including the multisensory VR component.

Wild birds may be in charge of transmitting pathogens to production animals. Contact with humans can also favor the spread of pathogens and promote the birds crowding, especially in feeding places. The dynamics of Salmonella transmission this interaction is still uncertain, but it is believed that as much wild birds can be the source of the infection, as they can become infected through domestic birds. Therefore, in order to explore this dynamic, two experiments were carried out with the Typhimurium serovar (ST), using as experimental models white-rumped munia (WRM) (Lonchura striata) and broilers (Gallus gallus). Internal and external birds samples were evaluated, as well as their local environment. When the WRM were previously infected by ST the contamination of broiler chicks litter (23,3%) occurred into the first 6 hours. However, when WRM´s became infected through contact with broiler chicks (previously inoculated with ST) the contamination of non-infected broiler chicks was lower (5%), including periods in which positive birds were not detected, besides to litter, drinking water and feed from the environment of uninfected birds, remaining negative for ST throughout the experimental period. The results of experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that the most favorable situation for the establishment of ST contamination in broiler chicks was the one in which the WRM´s were already infected, however, ST transmission was also characterized when non-contaminated WRM´s had access to previously contaminated broiler chicks, which carried ST to a group of initially negative broiler chicks. According to the research, we found that the possibility of contamination and transmission occurs between wild birds and poultry, and the dynamics on farms must be better understood.

Virtual reality (VR) for training helps minimize risks and costs by allowing more frequent and varied use of experiential training experiences, leading to active and improved learning. However, creating VR training experiences is costly and time-consuming, requiring software development experts. Additionally, current authoring tools are desktop-oriented, which detaches the process of creating the immersive experience from experiencing it in a situated context. This paper presents the development of an immersive authoring tool designed to create immersive virtual environments that can be used to train operatives. The authoring tool can record and replay animations of each action the user performed that can later be used to instruct other users how the task should be performed. Participants were divided into two groups, and the proposed authoring tool was evaluated using usability, satisfaction, presence and cybersickness. Between groups, Independent T-tests revealed that there were no significant differences between expert and non-expert groups in any of the studied variables. Also, the results showed that the authoring tool had high usability and satisfaction, average presence, and low probability of cybersickness symptoms.