Abstract Background : Africa is endowed with many neglected and underutilized crop species (NUCs) that have immense potential to significantly contribute to food and nutrition security, household incomes and health (medicinal values) to many rural communities in the continent. Despite the abundance of these NUCs, many countries in Africa are food insecure compared to the other continents in the world. The objectives of this review were to (1) identify NUCs and highlight their diverse uses in Africa; (2) synthesize information on the nutritional value of selected NUCs; (3) identify the key actors in research and development of NUCs and (4) highlight key research gaps to be addressed for promoting wider cultivation and commercialization of NUCs in Africa. Methods : The review involved a systematic literature search of reports and studies published in peer-reviewed journals, book chapters, theses and dissertations for native, introduced and naturalized species in Africa that have received limited or no research and improvement efforts. The search strings used included ‘forgotten’ OR ‘minor crops’ OR ‘neglected’ OR ‘opportunity’ OR ‘orphan’ OR ‘underutilized’ OR ‘traditional’ AND ‘crop’ AND ‘Africa’ in relevant search engines used include Google Scholar, Scopus, ScienceDirect, CABI Direct, African Journals Online and websites of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Various key words for specific native or indigenous crops were also used in searching the databases. Results : This review identified a total of 39 NUCs among cereals (3), pulses or legumes (11), roots and tubers (5), vegetables (6), oil crops (3), cooking bananas (3) and fruit tree crops (8). Cultivation and use of these NUCs are predominantly by resource-poor households. Research institutions have invested in research and development, but a few NUCs have benefitted from significant genetic improvement and viable export markets. For example, varietal development for some NUCs and vitamin A biofortified varieties of cooking bananas and sweet potato have benefitted from research and improvement efforts whereas limited progress has been made on underutilized fruit crops to bring them into wider cultivation and commercialization. Conclusions : The NUCs are resilient and adapted to the local environment making them reliable alternative crops for diversification, food security and income generation to many smallholder farmers if domesticated and promoted as commercial crops. There is need for major investment in research and development to improve and bring many NUCs into wider cultivation and commercialization.

Abstract Background : Women constitute the backbone of Indian agriculture and account for up to 80% of the rural labour force, playing a critical role in seed selection, biodiversity conservation, soil fertility management, and food production. Despite this, they remain structurally undervalued and institutionally marginalised. Despite existing national laws and policies, and international commitments that affirm women’s rights and gender equality, the lived realities of women in agriculture reflect numerous forms of oppression. This oppression is mostly rooted in social and cultural norms that are male-centric. Methods : This review synthesizes over two decades of interdisciplinary research, government datasets, and regional field studies to examine India's gendered dimensions of sustainable agriculture. Framed by global policy instruments, including the Sustainable Development Goals, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, this analysis focuses on four key dimensions: (1) the ecological and economic roles of women in agriculture; (2) the opportunities for promoting sustainable agriculture through the active involvement of women in the agricultural sector; (3) the systemic barriers women face; and (4) the policy interventions required to reposition women as agents of agrarian transformation. The findings reveal that women sustain agrobiodiversity and ecological resilience through organic farming, agroforestry, and seed sovereignty. They also navigate intersectional vulnerabilities intensified by climate change, mechanization, and social exclusion. Creating opportunities for their greater involvement in agriculture can, therefore, be a strategic move not only towards achieving gender equality but also to ensure long-term environmental and agricultural sustainability. Despite the contribution they make and the promising future they offer, women farmers experience significant barriers. Only 16% of rural women own land; gender gaps in wages, training participation, and decision making remain stark. Where women have access to productive resources and governance platforms, measurable improvements occur in productivity, food security, and climate adaptation outcomes. Conclusion : Achieving sustainable agriculture and climate resilience in India requires reconfiguring agrarian policies to cater for women’s rights, autonomy, and well-being rather than viewing them solely as instruments of development. This includes legalization of land rights, devolution of the agrarian governance, supporting rural childcare facilities, and gender-sensitive financial mechanisms. Supportive policies and programmes should be designed to ensure gender equality, the independence of women and recognize women as rights-bearing agents who can bring transformative change.

Plantation forestry in India is aims to sustain forest cover, rehabilitation of degraded land and support the forestry industry in providing timber, fuelwood and other products. However, the effect of soil and climatic factors on aboveground and belowground biomass carbon (AGB and BGB) as well as soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics under plantation management remains poorly understood. Therefore, the objectives of the present study are to: (i) evaluate differences in root to shoot ratios, and tree biomass and biomass carbon stocks, (ii) measure SOC stocks among different plantation types and stand age, (iii) quantify variation of SOC stock, and (iv) identify key bioclimatic drivers of carbon storage. Published data on biomass, biomass carbon and soil carbon stock were collected from 53 peer-reviewed studies encompassing 205 different plantation sites across India, covering stand ages of 1-50 years. Bioclimatic variables were obtained from WorldClim 2.1 based on geolocations of the plantations. Biomass carbon and SOC stocks significantly differed among soil types. The lowest mean aboveground biomass carbon stock (21.8 Mg C ha- 1) was recorded on Fluvisols and the highest (93.8 Mg C ha- 1) on Acrisols. Similarly, the lowest mean belowground biomass carbon stock (5 Mg C ha- 1) was found on Fluvisols and the highest (25.8 Mg C ha- 1) on Acrisols. The mean SOC stock was lowest (24.7 Mg C ha- 1) on Xerosols and highest (96.5 Mg C ha- 1) on Regosols. Ensemble machine learning models identified precipitation and temperature as key factors influencing the soil organic carbon (SOC); however, the models failed to identify the most influential predictor for AGBC and BGBC. The XGBoost model provided the best prediction for SOC stocks (R2 = 0.85). The results show that soil type and precipitation strongly influence carbon accumulation, underscoring the need to integrate soil-climate interactions into plantation-based carbon management strategies.

Millets, native crops to the African drylands, have been largely displaced from agricultural systems and diets by maize, and are now considered underutilized crops. Consequently, there is growing interest among crop scientists and development experts in supporting a renaissance of millet cultivation, alongside other indigenous crops. Yet, the often-cited superiority of millet in marginal environments—especially when compared to maize and sorghum—is rarely backed by rigorous comparisons. This study addresses this gap using a pooled dataset of 14,284 pearl millet, maize, and sorghum yield observations from a systematic review, analyzed through spline and logit regression and crop suitability modelling, across aridity zones in sub-Saharan Africa. The dataset—as does the broader literature—lacks side-by-side field comparisons. Crop performances were therefore evaluated instead along an aridity gradient. Results indicate that maize outyields millet and sorghum in almost all aridity zones. However, maize yields were variable compared to the low but relatively stable yield observed for pearl millet. High maize yields likely reflect the performances of hybrid maize, with seed and input costs that may reduce the profit advantage for smallholders, which raw yield data taken in isolation would suggest. Pearl millet also offers nutritional advantages, including higher iron, zinc, and protein contents, which are not captured in yield (biomass) comparisons. Local factors such as soil type and agronomic management could not be accounted for, although these are expected to condition crop performances. A systems approach that accounts for local context is necessary to evaluate the comparative advantage of these staple cereals.

Grain zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and protein concentrations have declined in wheat cultivars released since the 1960s. Here we conducted a meta-analysis of field studies to provide a global synthesis of how genetic, environmental and agronomic factors influence grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations. The probability of achieving the Zn target (38 mg kg-1) was 38.9% across bread wheat and 42.7% of durum wheat grain samples, but only 28.5% of released bread wheat cultivars met this target. The probability of achieving the Zn target was 44.7% with Zn-biofortified cultivars but only 24% with non-fortified cultivars. The likelihood of achieving the Fe target (59 mg kg-1) was <8% across bread and durum wheat grain samples. Relative to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers, co-application of Zn and Fe increased grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations by 27%, 41% and 25%, respectively. Combining agronomic and genetic biofortification is essential for improving grain nutrient concentrations and addressing micronutrient deficiencies.

Beyond lack of water, drought means that expected levels of water availability are not realized, triggering cascading consequences across land, water, biodiversity, climate, and human systems. Drought reflects variation in water availability, including thresholds, frequency, intensity, duration, and spatial synchrony as well as how expectations and anticipation shape human actions. Drought symptoms are linked to local pressures and broader drivers of change and can induce social and ecological responses. This review synthesizes advances in understanding the biophysical and socioeconomic impacts of drought across temporal scales, from seasonal to multi-year and climatic drought, and across subsystem typologies, including meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, ecological, and socioeconomic drought. The review demonstrates how weakened ecological buffers, governance failures, and policy incoherence intensify drought vulnerability. Building drought resilience requires coordinated action across sectors, scales, and institutions to restore the ecological, social, and governance buffers that sustain human well-being and planetary stability. Updated August 19th, 2026

Agroforestry practices managed by indigenous communities have been identified as viable alternatives to monoculture practices in the transition from shifting cultivation to sedentary agricultural systems. Nonetheless, the long-term effects of such transitions on the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) are not fully understood. In this study, we predict changes in SOC stock across a chronosequence of a natural forest stand and pineapple agroforestry systems (PAFSs) using an ensemble of models with four shared socioeconomic pathway scenarios. There was a strong agreement between the simulated and observed SOC stocks. Simulated SOC stocks with the Rothamsted Carbon (RothC) model in 15-year-old PAFS (83.2 Mg C ha-1) did not significantly differ from the value (90.4 Mg C ha-1) simulated for the natural forest. Simulations further revealed that average SOC stocks in 15-year-old PAFS would increase by 1.6 Mg C ha-1, while SOC stocks would decrease by 5.4 Mg C ha-1 in natural forests under climate change scenarios by 2060. It is concluded that traditional agroforestry practices such as PAFS can restore degraded land under shifting cultivation in the mountainous regions of the Indian East Himalayas and contribute to achieving carbon neutrality.

Highland bamboo (Oldeania alpina) plays a vital role in supporting local livelihoods, fostering biodiversity conservation and sustainable land management. Despite these benefits, its significant potential for carbon sequestration remains underutilized within Ethiopia’s climate mitigation strategies. In this study, we developed site-specific allometric equations to assess the biomass and carbon storage potential of highland bamboo. Data were collected from the Garamba natural bamboo forest and Hula homestead bamboo stands in the Sidama Regional State, Southern Ethiopia. Data on stand density and structure were gathered using systematically laid transects and sample plots, while plant samples were analyzed in the laboratory to determine the dry-to-fresh weight ratios. We developed allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass (AGB) and carbon stock. The study results indicated that homestead bamboo stands exhibited higher biomass accumulation than natural bamboo stands. The AGB was estimated at 92.3 Mg ha⁻1 in the natural forest and 118.3 Mg ha⁻1 in homestead bamboo stands, with total biomass carbon storage of 52.1 Mg ha⁻1 and 66.7 Mg ha⁻1, respectively. The findings highlight the significant potential of highland bamboo for carbon sequestration in both natural stands and homesteads. Sustainable management of natural highland bamboo stands and integrating bamboo into farms can contribute to climate change mitigation, support ecosystem restoration, and enhance the socio-economic development of communities.

We review existing published literature to assess the ecological grief and eco-anxiety on livelihoods of rural households. It is suggested that agroforestry can effectively alleviate the adverse effects of climate change induced losses to rural households.

Human-driven land use changes in the Indian East Himalayan region threaten vital life-support systems by disrupting the carbon cycle, significantly affecting the global climate. Understanding net ecosystem production (NEP) is essential for evaluating the carbon sequestration potential of various managed systems, such as plantations and agroforestry. This study aimed to quantify NEP across six different land uses: natural forest, degraded forest, rubber plantation, Areca plantation, Areca agroforestry, and Piper agroforestry. This study provides the first estimates of NEP in forests, plantations, and agroforestry systems in this region. The net primary production was highest in Areca agroforestry (11.35 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) and lowest in Areca plantations (5.30 Mg C ha-1 yr-1). Carbon loss occurred through soil respiration and harvest, with annual soil respiration highest in rubber plantations (2.12 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) and natural forests (1.69 Mg C ha-1 yr-1). Harvest carbon loss was greatest in natural forests (4.80 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) and nearly non-existent in rubber plantations. NEP was highest in Areca agroforestry (6.99 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) and lowest in natural forests (1.68 Mg C ha-1 yr-1), as the former exhibit high NPP and lower carbon release from the system. These results indicate that Areca agroforestry are more effective carbon sinks than other land uses, including natural forests. The study concludes that the NEP of certain managed ecosystems can equal or surpass that of forest ecosystems, emphasizing their potential as nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation and their role in advancing Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 13.

The push-pull technology (PPT) has often been presented as a management strategy for stemborers and witchweed. However, its value as an agronomic practice and an agroecological approach remains largely underappreciated. This review aims to appraise the PPT used in eastern Africa, synthesize evidence for its ecological and economic benefits, and identify barriers to its adoption and opportunities for its expansion to other crops and farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

The combined use of livestock manure and synthetic fertilizers is considered as one of the climate smart and sustainable agricultural practices. However, farmers' adoption and the benefits and costs of localized application of manure and fertilizers are not well-understood in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Therefore, the objectives of this review and meta-analysis were to: (1) provide the evidence for joint adoption of livestock manure and synthetic fertilizers by smallholder farmers; (2) determine farmers' manure placement practices and the intensity of manure application; and (3) provide a comparative analysis of the productivity of cereals, resource use efficiency and profitability with localized application of manure and synthetic fertilizers in SSA. Review of 32 studies indicated that adoption rates of livestock manure by smallholder farmers is: (1) as high as the adoption rates of synthetic fertilizers; and (2) conditional on the adoption of synthetic fertilizers, improved seeds and soil and water conservation practices. Meta-analyses of data from 106 studies across 19 African countries revealed that mean response ratios of cereals with spot-application (2.16), banding (2.07) or broadcasting (2.39) of manure and fertilizer are not significantly different. On the other hand, rain use efficiency was 43.6 % higher with spotapplication than broadcasting of manure and fertilizer. The agronomic use efficiencies of nitrogen and phosphorus were also 15-39 % higher with spot-application than broadcasting. This indicates that localized application of manure and fertilizer can serve as an effective strategy to achieve more efficient utilization of the limited rainfall and applied nutrients by crops. The benefit to cost ratio of spot-application (6.7) was also 81.9 % higher than for broadcasting (3.7). The returns to farmers were estimated at 3.7-4.3 dollars for every dollar invested in manure or manure + fertilizers. It is conclude that spot-application or banding can significantly reduce the quantity of manure needed without compromising crop yields, resource use efficiency or profitability. This review has provided a much needed synthesis of research in ways that advance the understanding of integrating organic and inorganic fertilizers as critical inputs for soil health.

African smallholder farming systems are complex, diverse and locally adapted, but guidance is lacking on how farmers can make informed choices of the type of organic inputs to suit their farm conditions. In this review we aimed to provide a synthesis of actionable information on ex situ and in situ organic resources and decision support tools to facilitate evidence-based choices by smallholders in cereal production systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

Bamboo is well known for its fast growth, high productivity, and multipurpose uses in different industries. Although bamboo stands are claimed to stock considerable amount of carbon in their biomass and the soil, our knowledge of soil organic carbon (SOC) and macronutrient storage below 100 cm soil depth is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate (1) variations in SOC and macronutrient concentration and stocks up to 500 cm soil depth under different aged bamboo plantations and open forests; (2) the vertical distribution of SOC and macronutrients; and (3) the stratification of SOC along soil depths and stand ages of bamboo. SOC and macronutrient contents decreased with soil depth consistently following distance-decay spatial interaction models. The highest SOC stock was recorded in 30 years old bamboo plantation (243.3 Mg ha-1), while the lowest was in 5 years old bamboo plantations (186.47 Mg ha-1) in the 0-500 cm soil depth. The SOC and macronutrient concentrations in the 0-100 cm were higher in all the bamboo stands than in the open forest. The total carbon stocks increased with increasing bamboo stand age. The stratification ratio of SOC and SOC: clay under different aged bamboo plantations indicated a moderate soil quality and good soil structure. It is concluded that bamboo plantations can serve as effective carbon sinks, contributing to substantial accumulation of SOC and macronutrients in subsurface soil layers. This makes bamboo plantations on degraded land a sustainable strategy for climate change mitigation, soil conservation, and land restoration.

Human Zn and Fe deficiencies can be reduced through agronomic biofortification, but information on factors influencing maize grain-Zn and -Fe levels remain scanty. This analysis: (1) Establishes the global distribution of Zn and Fe concentrations in maize grain; (2) assess the contribution of different agronomic practices to the effectiveness of Zn fertilizers for increasing grain yields, and Zn and Fe levels in maize grain; and (3) identify key biophysical factors and metrics to more effectively guide agronomic biofortification of Zn. Using 5874 data points in 138 published papers from 34 countries, we estimated a 7.5

Recent advances in the application of spectral bands from satellite observations and machine learning algorithms (MLA) in the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud-computing platform have been demonstrated to enhance the accuracy of mapping forest resources. This study presents a novel method for mapping the natural distribution of highland bamboo (Oldeania alpina) using spectral bands and three machine learning algorithms, namely random forest, gradient tree boosting, and classification and regression tree. First, spectral bands, vegetation indices and textural features including contrast, entropy and inverse difference moment were derived from the Sentinel-2 elevation data. Second, observations were categorized as the dry season (December–February), short rainy season (March-May), main (long) rainy season (June-August), wet season (September–November) and annual composite. Third, the machine learning algorithms were tested using 1882 ground control points collected from field and high spatial resolution images. Finally, the best-performing machine learning algorithm was used to classify and map bamboo forests. The five land cover categories identified were bamboo stands, natural forest, other vegetation, non-vegetated areas and water bodies. The result shows that the random forest classifier is a robust algorithm with an overall accuracy of 94% considering all the annual composite’s spectral, vegetation and textural variables. The highland bamboo coverage (91 km2) in the Andracha district provided valuable insights. Bamboo stands were mostly distributed in the southern and southeastern parts of the district. Here, we show that image compositing and multiple input parameters using machine learning techniques can overcome challenges facing land cover classification, which can hinder accurate mapping of Afromontane forests. We conclude that the incorporation of vegetation indices and textural features in land cover classification increases accuracy of mapping natural highland bamboo coverage and distribution. The application of this new method is a promising prospect not only in Ethiopia but also in Afromontane forests elsewhere in Africa.

Carbon sequestration through tree-based systems has been well recognized due to its potential to mitigate climate change. The lack of site-specific and species-specific biomass estimation models is a challenge to accurately estimating forest biomass at local and regional scales. Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis) trees form an essential component of agroforestry systems in Assam and Tripura state of India. In this study, trees with stem girth range of 10–80 cm and stand age of < 10 to > 20 years old in smallholder agarwood stands classes were destructively harvested to develop biomass estimation models. Different allometric relationships were compared using either diameter alone or a compound variable, including diameter and height, to predict above ground biomass (AGB), below ground biomass (BGB) and total biomass (TB). Based on the model fit criteria (R2, RMSE, AIC and BIC), the best models for estimating above ground, below ground and total biomass of the agarwood trees were lnAGB = − 3.13 + (0.89 × lnD2H), lnBGB = − 2.40 + (1.49 × lnD) and lnTB = 0.29 + (0.96 × lnAGB), respectively. Stand biomass in the study area showed a significant increase from 6.92 Mg ha−1 in < 10 years old stands to 65.90 Mg ha−1in > 20-year-old stands, and is proportionally related with the increase in tree density of the stands ranging from 930–4470 stems ha−1. The continuous harvesting of various-sized trees and the re-plantation and regeneration of agarwood trees in the study area affected the increase in stand-level biomass and the distribution of biomass carbon across the size classes. The proper implementation of the Assam Agarwood Promotion Policy 2020 and similar policies of Tripura need to be supported to promote the cultivation and conservation of the species across the region.

The compounding and cascading effects of climate change induced by anthropogenic activities threaten the livelihoods of indigenous communities living in fragile ecosystems and practicing shifting agriculture in mountainous regions. This study assessed differences in household-level climate change vulnerability and socioeconomic profiles of indigenous communities practicing shifting agriculture in the Indian Himalayas using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) framework. A total of 120 randomly selected households spread across 12 randomly chosen villages were surveyed, making sure that at least 10 households per village in Dima Hasao, Karbi Anglong, and Cachar districts of the state of Assam using the indicator-based household-level questionnaire to examine the cause and characteristics of vulnerability in the study region. Furthermore, focus group discussions were held in each village to delve into the community-based adaptive strategies employed by hill farmers, aiming to acquire an in-depth understanding of their approaches. The results revealed that villages with higher susceptibility to climate change are characterized by lower literacy levels, smaller land holdings with poor soil fertility, greater losses of crops due to extreme events, greater dependency on natural capital, and lower livelihood diversification. Villages with better land management techniques, higher decision-making abilities, agricultural diversification, and good market access had better adaptability to climate change. Agricultural diversification, transitioning from shifting agriculture to high-value cropping such as agroforestry, coupled with indigenous knowledge of the communities, provided tangible and intangible benefits and ecosystem services. Integrating high-value crops in shifting agriculture contributed to greater economic returns. In conclusion, shifting agriculture plays a vital role in the survival of ethnic culture, heritage, religious beliefs, and the livelihoods of nature-oriented hill farmers. Furthermore, improving fallow land management is crucial for maintaining ecological equilibrium and ensuring the sustainability of hill farmers’ lifestyles by fostering a community-environment-development nexus. Finally, we discuss the methodological implications of vulnerability assessment in the context of this study.

AbstractThis chapter introduces the different agroforestry systems (AFSs) as part of the diversification of agricultural landscapes and gives examples of their use in different related crop production systems in southern Africa. The introduction of trees into agriculture has several benefits and can mitigate the effects of climate change. For example nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs contribute significantly to nutrient recycling and benefit soil conservation, which is particularly important for smallholder farms. In addition, shelterbelts play an important role in reducing wind speeds, and thus, evapotranspiration, and modifying the microclimatic conditions, which is an important factor for the adaptation of cropping systems to climate change. These integrated AFS landscapes provide important ecosystem services for soil protection, food security and for biodiversity. However, deficiencies in the institutional and policy frameworks that underlie the adoption and stimulus of AFS in the southern African region were identified. Furthermore, the following factors must be considered to optimise AFS: (1) selection of tree species that ensure maximum residual soil fertility beyond 3 years, (2) size of land owned by the farmer, (3) integrated nutrition management, where organic resources are combined with synthetic inorganic fertilisers and (4) tree-crop competition in the root zone for water.