Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) have raised concerns due to their widespread use in disinfectants and unknown bioaccumulation behavior. However, conventional bioaccumulation assessments are costly, time-consuming, and low-throughput, limiting their utility for screening the growing array of emerging QACs. In this study, we developed a protein affinity ultrafiltration mass spectrometry (PA-UF-MS) strategy using human serum albumin (HSA) as a molecular bait to selectively isolate bioaccumulative QACs from disinfectants. We identified 12 traditional and emerging QACs, including several silanol alkyltrimethylammonium compounds (silanol-ATMACs), with strong HSA binding affinities [fold changes (FCs): 10.1-60.0]. Five silanol-ATMACs (C10-C18) were further structurally elucidated by MS/MS characterization and confirmed via a hydrolysis-based transformation experiment. In silico toxicokinetic modeling and in vivo rat experiments revealed longer elimination half-lives for silanol-ATMACs compared to ATMACs, indicating their bioaccumulation potential. These silanol-ATMACs were mainly detected in medical disinfectants with a median total concentration (∑silanol-ATMAC) of 779 mg/L. While detected at modest levels in indoor dust (median: 8.04 ng/g), silanol-ATMACs exhibited elevated concentrations in human serum, comparable to those of 18 traditional QACs (medians: 10.6 and 13.9 ng/mL, respectively). Our findings demonstrate the application of PA-UF-MS for prioritizing emerging bioaccumulative contaminants and highlight the need for further toxicological evaluation and human exposure assessment of silanol-ATMACs.

The escalating use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) as antimicrobial substitutes-further intensified in the post-pandemic era-has raised significant public health concerns regarding their environmental prevalence and potential toxicity. Despite growing evidence of developmental toxicity, the molecular mechanisms driving these effects remain largely undefined. As placental development is a key determinant of fetal growth, with trophoblast function playing a central role in this process, we used trophoblast migration assays to screen six major QACs commonly detected in human serum, identifying C14-BAC as the most potent analog. Notably, C14-BAC significantly inhibited trophoblast invasion and disrupted mitochondrial homeostasis at nanomolar levels. By integrating global chemoproteomics with systems biology, we identified nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase (NAMPT) as a key functionally relevant target of C14-BAC, which was further validated by genetic, pharmacological, and metabolic rescue approaches in trophoblasts. Mechanistically, C14-BAC directly bound to and inhibited NAMPT, the rate-limiting enzyme in the NAD⁺ salvage pathway, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 886 nM, triggering pronounced NAD⁺ depletion, redox imbalance, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, comparative screening across QAC analogs linked NAMPT binding affinity to toxic potency, pinpointing the benzyl aromatic moiety as a critical structural driver of this interaction. Collectively, our findings establish the NAMPT-NAD⁺ axis as a critical metabolic vulnerability in reproduction that can be hijacked by a pervasive class of disinfectants, underscoring the need to re-evaluate the safety of widely used QACs, and providing a structure-activity basis for the selection of disinfectant chemicals.

A precise understanding of indoor particle dynamics requires moving beyond traditional mass- or number-based metrics, which lack the detailed molecular composition information needed to identify key processes governing organic aerosols (OAs). Here, we developed and applied a novel molecular-level framework based on nontarget, high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of OA composition from multiple sites. This framework resolves the impacts of transport and partitioning, as demonstrated by characterizing particles simultaneously collected from the living room, kitchen, and outdoors of an apartment. Our analysis revealed that outdoor transport was the primary source of living room OA and that the indoor/outdoor ratios of specific components differ from those of bulk particle mass, implying compound-specific transport behaviors. Furthermore, semivolatile organic compounds were found to partition from indoor surfaces into aerosols, as evidenced by benzalkonium chloride cleaning experiments. These results demonstrate that transport and surface-gas partitioning critically shape OA composition at the molecular level, highlighting the limitations of conventional mass- and number-based approaches in capturing the drivers of compositional change and exposure-relevant indoor OA dynamics. More importantly, our framework provides a transferable approach with broad applicability beyond this specific indoor environment, enabling future investigations of OA evolution across various atmospheric settings.

The quantitative characterization of multiple exposure routes to quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) remains underexplored. In this study, paired samples of indoor dust, bulk air, hand wipes, silicone wristbands, and urine were collected from 109 adults residing in urban homes from South China in 2023. First, seven urinary biomarkers, including hydroxylated and carboxylated metabolites of C10-C14 benzylalkyldimethylammonium compounds (BACs), were identified using a combined in silico and in vitro workflow. Then, 23 QACs, including 6 C8-C18 BACs, 6 dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (C8-C18 DADMACs), 6 alkyltrimethylammonium compounds (C8-C18 ATMACs), and 5 emerging QACs, were ubiquitously detected in various environmental matrices, including dust (median ∑QAC concentrations of 39.6 μg/g), bulk air (130 pg/m3), hand wipes (1420 ng for two hands), and silicone wristbands (225 ng/g), respectively. A significantly positive correlation was observed between the logarithmically transformed masses of QACs detected in silicone wristbands and those from dust, bulk air, and hand wipes (r: 0.564, p < 0.01). Moreover, urinary hydroxylated and carboxylated C10- and C12-BACs were significantly correlated with corresponding parent compounds in wristbands (r: 0.481-0.607, p < 0.01). Finally, back calculation from urinary exposure biomarkers revealed that ingestion of surface residues was the dominant exposure route for C10-, C12-, and C14-BACs, accounting for 3.7%, 49.6%, and 18% of total exposure, respectively. The findings from this study propose suitable urinary exposure biomarkers and silicone wristbands as useful indicators for accurate internal and external exposure assessment, respectively, and highlight the importance of ingestion of surface residues as a major exposure route.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are widely applied to antimicrobial textiles, yet their dermal exposure profiles and skin effects remain poorly understood. Using a three-dimensional human skin equivalent (3D-HSE), we quantified percutaneous penetration for benzylalkyldimethylammonium compounds (BACs), dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (DADMACs), and alkyltrimethylammonium compounds (ATMACs) with C8-C18 chains. Shorter-chain (C8-C10) BACs and ATMACs showed rapid uptake (>50% at 24 h; >70% at 48 h), whereas long-chain homologues (C16-C18) exhibited minimal permeation (<15%) and greater retention within the skin. The correlation between the octanol-water partition coefficient (log Kow) and molecular weight (MW), combined with molecular docking analysis, revealed that both passive and active transport were involved in the skin exposure of QACs. By integrating sweat leaching and 3D-HSE data, estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of total QACs were 1.82 ng/kg bw/d for dry clothing, increasing to 96.9 ng/kg bw/d for sweaty clothing, while these values reached 51.3 and 1960 ng/kg bw/d in the high-exposure scenario, respectively. Finally, transcriptomics and lipidomics showed downregulation of keratinization and epidermal genes and broad depletion of structural and signaling lipids, consistent with impaired skin integrity and immune activation. These results identify textiles as a significant sweat-mediated exposure source and demonstrate chain-length-dependent dermal kinetics and toxicity of QACs.

Polyurethane soft foam (PSF), one of the most extensively used plastics in household products, presents both convenience and disposal challenges. The chemical makeup of PSF, particularly its released substances, remains unclear, as do the drivers of toxicity to aquatic organisms. Here, zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used as a model to evaluate the potential adverse effects of 47 PSF and similar-use products through swimming behavior and metabolomic profiling, and to identify the key toxic chemicals leached from these products by means of liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry and correlation analysis. Among these, PSF leachates showed more severe adverse effects on larvae compared to latex and silicone leachates, with a higher number of chemical features and greater total abundance. Notably, linear alkylbenzenesulfonates (LAS), which accounted for nearly half of the chemicals significantly associated with toxicity, were predominantly found in PSF products. The concentrations of LAS in these products ranged from 5.6 to 4078.9 μg/g, with an average of 1015.6 μg/g. Of these, p-(3-dodecyl)benzenesulfonic acid was selected as the representative driver of LAS toxicity, which induced consistent behavioral and metabolic disruption in zebrafish similar to the effects observed with PSF leachates. This work suggests that LAS are potential adverse chemicals in PSF products and that their continued, widespread use raises concern for aquatic ecosystems.

BACKGROUND:Breastfeeding can be a source of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) for infants, but limited information exists on exposure to commonly used chemicals such as melamine and bisphenols in nursing infants in the US. OBJECTIVE:We aimed to measure a suite of EDCs in breast milk and evaluate exposure of nursing infants to these chemicals. METHODS:We analyzed EDCs in breast milk samples collected from 50 women in Seattle, Washington during 2019, including melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, ammelide, bisphenol A (BPA), 4-hydroxyphenyl sulfone (BPS), 4,4'-methylenediphenol, (4,4'-hexafluoroisopropylidene) diphenol, fluorene-9-bisphenol, and triclosan. We examined associations of infant age at sample collection and maternal characteristics with log10-transformed chemical concentrations using linear regression. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of each chemical through breast milk was calculated for infants 0-12 months old using our sample median chemical concentrations. RESULTS:We frequently detected (62-92%) melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. Median concentrations were 0.48 ng/mL melamine, 0.59 ng/mL cyanuric acid, 0.311 ng/mL BPA, 0.012 ng/mL BPS, and 0.072 ng/mL triclosan. Older infant age (>6 versus <6 months) was associated with lower melamine concentrations (-0.41, 95% CI: -0.80, -0.01). Maternal obesity was associated with higher BPA (0.68, 95% CI: 0.14, 1.23) and maternal overweight with higher triclosan (0.43, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.80). Other associations with participant characteristics were suggestive but not statistically significant. EDIs for infants in the average exposure scenario ranged by infant age from 40.3 to 72.8 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for melamine and 86.5-156 ng/kg-bodyweight/day for BPA. SIGNIFICANCE:We frequently detected melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan in breast milk. EDIs through breastfeeding were generally higher than for other exposure pathways (e.g., dermal uptake, dust ingestion or inhalation), and more work is needed to understand potential health effects of chronic infant exposures to even low levels of these ubiquitous chemicals through breast milk. IMPACT:This study adds to the limited research to date on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in breast milk, exposure among nursing infants in the US, and differences by infant and maternal characteristics, to further inform cumulative exposure assessment in infants and regulatory thresholds. Melamine, cyanuric acid, BPA, BPS, and triclosan were detected with high frequency in breast milk samples in our study, and our study suggests that breast milk is an important exposure pathway for these chemicals among nursing infants. Given the importance of breastfeeding for infant health, our study highlights the need to investigate potential health effects of these chronic exposures.

Biodegradable plastics like polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) are increasingly marketed as alternatives to conventional plastics, yet how soil properties regulate degradation kinetics, how intact films and microplastic fragments differentially affect microbial communities, and which metabolic pathways and functional genes govern mineralization remain unclear. The present study investigated PBAT degradation mechanisms in 10 distinct agricultural soils by integrating metagenomics, microbial community analysis, and strain isolation. The results revealed that the environmental fate of PBAT is critically modulated by soil properties. Neutral-alkaline powdery loam soils exhibited the highest degradation efficiency. Soil physicochemical properties indirectly modulate PBAT weight loss by altering the gene abundance of hydrolases and aromatic-degrading enzymes, with soil nitrogen content serving as a key regulatory factor. Metagenomic correlation analysis suggests that PBAT degradation is associated with specific microbial consortia, including Hydrogenophaga and Ascomycota fungi. Microplastic particles of PBAT induced greater disturbances than intact films, as evidenced by significant reductions in microbial diversity, altered community structure, and shifts in functional gene composition. A complete degradation pathway, including initial polymer cleavage followed by terephthalic acid assimilation via the β-ketoadipate pathway, was elucidated. These results provide mechanistic insights into soil-specific PBAT degradation and facilitate risk assessment and sustainable management of biodegradable plastics.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) have been used as antimicrobial additives in textiles, but information on their levels in textiles and ecological impacts from laundry wastewater is scarce. Here, 119 textile products from Chinese online vendors were analyzed for traditional and emerging QACs using target and suspect screening approaches with high-resolution mass spectrometry. The total concentrations of 18 traditional QACs ranged from 7.34 to 145,000 ng/g, and 16 emerging QACs were identified with total concentrations at 5.45 to 349,000 ng/g. Under laboratory-controlled conditions, over 76% of the selected textiles exhibited QAC migration rates exceeding 50% after washing. In simulated laundry experiments, hand-washing released a ΣQAC concentration of 42.1 ng/mL, and machine-washing released 22.4 ng/mL, with differences attributed to the water volume used by different methods. Both laundry wastewater and QACs solution at equivalent concentrations caused dose-dependent immobilization of Daphnia magna. Combining bioassay-based risk characterization factors with environmental dilution factors across 150 countries, 7% of regions showed high risk after WWTP-treatment, increasing to 41% for direct discharge with sewage. The high migration rates suggest that QAC-treated textiles not only fail to maintain long-term antimicrobial efficacy but also contribute to continuous low-level environmental exposures, raising concerns about their essential use in nondisposable textile materials.

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are widely used industrial chemicals of emerging concern, but human internal exposure to long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs) remains poorly characterized because of analytical challenges. In this study, we quantified different CP congener groups in serum samples from 571 adults residing in Shenzhen, a major manufacturing hub in South China, collected during 2021-2023. Ninety-three CP congener, including 24 short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), 34 medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) and 35 LCCPs, were detected in nearly all samples. The ∑CPs concentrations in serum ranged from 29.1 to 4810 ng/mL (weight wet [ww]) with a median concentration of 189 ng/mL ww. SCCPs were the dominant CPs congener group with a median concentration of 148 ng/mL ww, followed by MCCPs (34.0 ng/mL ww) and LCCPs (0.668 ng/mL ww). The widespread detection of LCCPs indicates that this rarely monitored CP class contributes to human internal exposure. Demographic factors explained approximately 27% of the variability in serum SCCP concentrations, although most interindividual variability remained unexplained. Integration with published Chinese biomonitoring data suggested that serum SCCP concentrations declined after 2021, temporally consistent with regulatory restrictions, whereas MCCPs showed an increased contribution, consistent with their use as SCCP substitutes. These findings highlight the need to include LCCPs in human biomonitoring frameworks and to improve analytical standardization for CP exposure assessment.

The pervasive presence of the tire antioxidant N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) in aquatic environments, and its role as the precursor of the acutely toxic transformation product 6PPD-quinone, has raised substantial concerns regarding tire-derived chemical pollution and its ecological impacts. Despite growing regulatory attention, selective and interference-resistant methods for the rapid and reliable determination of 6PPD in environmental waters remain limited, largely due to the lack of specific molecular recognition mechanisms. In this study, we report the identification and mechanistic elucidation of a host-guest interaction between β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and 6PPD, enabled by cavity-size complementarity and favorable hydrogen-bonding interactions. Isothermal titration calorimetry, NMR spectroscopy, and molecular docking collectively confirmed the formation of a stable βCD-6PPD inclusion complex (Kd = 2.11 μM). Leveraging this recognition, two βCD-based sensing platforms were developed: a fluorescence "turn-on" sensor (LOD = 4.13 nM) and a self-powered photoelectrochemical sensor with enhanced selectivity (LOD = 3.19 nM). Both sensors were successfully applied to the quantification of 6PPD in road runoff rainwater samples, yielding results in excellent agreement with those of HPLC-MS/MS analysis. This work establishes cyclodextrin host-guest chemistry as an effective recognition strategy for tire-derived contaminants and provides a practical foundation for the rapid, low-cost, and potentially field-deployable monitoring of 6PPD in environmental waters.

Identification of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) precursors remains a longstanding challenge due to the complexity of contaminated source water. Tire wear particles (TWPs) can be an overlooked source of DBPs precursors. To figure out the specific amine additives in tire rubber serving as potential nitrosamine precursors during chlorination, six frequently measured tire-derived amine additives, including N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N '-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD), N-isopropyl-N '-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (IPPD), N-cyclohexyl-N '-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (CPPD), N,N '-dicyclohexylurea (DCU), diphenylamine (DPhA), and N,N '-dicyclohexylamine (DCHA), were selected to simulate their degradation processes, and their DBPs formation potentials were evaluated under various water matrices. IPPD was found to have a high molar yield of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA, up to 8%), while 6PPD exhibited a lower molar yield (similar to 0.1%) with the molar ratio of chlorine-to-ammonium nitrogen (Cl2:N = 2) and disinfectant-to-precursor (D/P = 10). Suspect and target screening approaches were further applied to identify the transformation products of IPPD, and the formation pathway of NDMA via IPPD was proposed. Furthermore, we assessed NDMA formation from IPPD in simulated TWP leachates through chlorination experiments in the presence of ammonia, which revealed that IPPD contributed up to 24% of the total NDMA formed. This study offers new insights into the previously overlooked source of nitrosamines from tire-derived amine additives.

Rapid and low-cost screening of estrogenic activity is urgently required for assessing endocrine disruption in complex aquatic environments. However, conventional instrumental methods, such as LC-MS/MS, cannot capture the integrated biological effects of chemical mixtures, whereas whole-cell reporter assays are often limited by matrix-induced cytotoxicity and membrane transport constraints. To address these limitations, we developed a cell-free photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensor that targets the molecular initiating event of estrogenic toxicity, namely the specific assembly of human estrogen receptor α (hERα) on the estrogen response element (ERE). Mechanistic studies showed that the platform converts ligand-induced interfacial steric hindrance into a sensitive, low-background photocurrent signal, enabling differentiation and quantification of both agonistic and antagonistic effects. The biosensor showed subnanomolar sensitivity, with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 0.065 nM for 17β-estradiol (E2) and a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 96.5 nM for 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT). Screening of six representative chemicals produced estrogenic activity rankings that were consistent with binding free energies obtained from molecular docking. Application to real wastewater samples, including domestic, hospital, and aquaculture effluents, yielded E2-equivalent concentrations in good agreement with targeted UPLC-MS/MS measurements. By avoiding the limitations associated with cell-based assays, this platform provides an effect-based method for evaluating estrogenic activity in complex environmental samples and supports next-generation risk assessment of chemical mixtures.

Previous studies have primarily focused on the environmental occurrence of amine-based rubber additives, whereas their non-dietary exposure pathways in residential settings remain poorly characterized. This study investigated residential exposure to amine-based rubber additives using indoor dust, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) passive air samplers, handwipes, and silicone wristbands collected from 109 residents in Shenzhen, China. Fifteen target compounds, including p-phenylenediamine derivatives (PPDs) and their quinone oxidation products (PPDQs), were analyzed. Indoor dust was the major reservoir, with a median total concentration of 489 ng/g, and was dominated by hexa(methoxymethyl)melamine (HMMM; 121 ng/g) and 1,3-diphenylguanidine (DPG; 91.7 ng/g). Handwipe samples were enriched with diphenylamine (DPhA; 2.13 ng for two hands) and 1,3-diphenylguanidine (DPG; 1.09 ng for two hands), while N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-quinonediimine (6PPDQ) was more frequently detected than its precursor N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD). Silicone wristbands, used as integrated personal samplers, mainly accumulated HMMM, N,N′-dicyclohexylurea (DCU), and DPhA, with median concentrations of 3.62, 2.20, and 1.71 ng/g, respectively. A positive correlation between 6PPD and 6PPDQ in dust (r = 0.48, p < 0.001) suggested common sources and/or oxidative transformation, while the significant dust–handwipe correlation of 6PPDQ suggested potential transfer from dust to hands. Exposure assessment showed that dust ingestion was the dominant pathway, with the median estimated daily intakes via this route of 0.275 and 1.64 ng/kg bw/day for adults and young children, respectively; the median total intake across all four assessed pathways was 0.366 ng/kg bw/day for adults. Although current exposure levels were below available toxicological reference values, uncertainties remain regarding long-term chronic exposure.

Despite extensive research on the environmental contamination of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), their occurrence across diverse indoor microenvironments remains insufficiently characterized. In this study, we analyzed a broad spectrum of PFAS in dust samples collected from residential settings (n = 14) and six types of public environments in South China between July and September 2022, using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Of the 35 target compounds, 19 PFAS were detected with detection frequencies exceeding 50%. Ultrashort-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and their precursors emerged as the dominant species, with concentrations substantially higher than those of legacy compounds such as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). PFAS concentrations varied by microenvironment, with offices exhibiting the highest levels (median 516 ng/g), likely attributable to the widespread use of PFAS-containing materials and confined space. Estimated exposure via dust ingestion revealed that toddlers experienced the highest intake (0.692 ng/kg/day) among all age groups in household environments, due to greater dust ingestion rates. Our study highlights the widespread occurrence of emerging PFAS, including ultrashort- and short-chain PFAAs and PFAA precursors, in indoor environments in South China and emphasizes the importance of ongoing surveillance and regulatory measures for these substances.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental contaminants with poorly understood sublethal effects on insects. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), one of the most widely distributed legacy PFAS is increasingly recognized for altering organismal physiology beyond traditional toxicity endpoints. Here, we use the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model to examine how PFOA exposure during larval (juvenile) development reshapes insect life-history progression and metabolic homeostasis. Our studies reveal that at environmentally relevant concentrations (nM to low μM), PFOA induces precocious expression of developmentally-regulated genes and leads to metabolic changes that persist into adulthood. At higher concentrations used to probe mechanism, PFOA accelerates larval development, disrupts mitochondrial membrane potential, and increases whole-organism metabolic heat production - results that suggest altered mitochondrial energetic efficiency. Consistent with this tradeoff, PFOA-exposed larvae that develop faster under permissive conditions exhibit heightened sensitivity to environmental stressors, including elevated temperature and reduced food hydration. Together, these findings demonstrate that PFOA disrupts metabolic and developmental processes in a dose- and context-dependent manner, highlighting sublethal effects that may influence insect resilience under environmental stress.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are used as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents in cleaning, disinfecting and personal care products, and textiles. High levels of QACs have been found in indoor dust in residential homes; however, there is limited information on QAC exposure in non-residential environments serving sensitive populations, such as childcare centers. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of QACs, including benzylalkyldimethyl ammonium compounds (BACs), dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (DADMACs), and alkyltrimethylammonium compounds (ATMACs), in dust from childcare centers and estimated daily intake of QACs by toddlers in chidlcare via dust ingestion. Nineteen QACs were detected in dust with a median total QAC concentration (Sigma QAC) of 150 mu g/g. BACs were the most abundant QAC group found at concentrations ranging from 2.67 to 1370 mu g/g (median 90.4 mu g/g) and constituted 64 % of the Sigma QAC concentrations. The QAC levels in dust from childcare centers were significantly higher than concentrations previosly reported in homes. The EDIs for BACs, DADMACs, and ATMACs via dust ingestion calculated based on the 95th percentile concentrations in childcare dust were up to 30 times higher than those for toddlers in residential homes. These findings demonstrate high QAC exposure in childcares, posing significant early-life exposure for toddlers.

Despite being regarded as safer alternatives to legacy pesticides, current-use pesticides (CUPs) are now identified as emerging contaminants with growing evidence of their toxicity to wildlife and humans. In this study, we collected matched samples of indoor dust, drinking water, and urine from 81 households in Indiana, United States, and analyzed these samples for 82 CUPs, including 48 insecticides, 25 herbicides, and 9 fungicides. Of these, 47 CUPs were identified across samples of indoor dust, drinking water, and urine with median total CUP (& sum;CUP) concentrations of 18 300 ng/g, 101 ng/L, and 2.93 ng/mL, respectively. Notably, concentrations of neonicotinoids (NEOs) in indoor dust were higher than those reported in other studies. Herbicides were the most abundant CUPs detected in drinking water, constituting 55% of the & sum;CUP concentrations. Insecticides were the most abundant CUP group detected in urine (median total insecticide concentration: 2.30 ng/mL), followed by herbicides (median: 0.409 ng/mL) and fungicides (median: 0.0531 ng/mL). The highest estimated daily intake (EDI) from drinking water and dust exposure was found for imidacloprid, with a median value of 1.00 ng/kg of body weight/day. Our results show that indoor dust is a significant exposure pathway for most insecticides and fungicides, while herbicides are mainly consumed through drinking water. In addition, the toxicity equivalent factor model, incorporated with data retrieved from the ToxCast database, indicated that imidacloprid poses the greatest health risk based on its high exposure levels and toxicity. This study underscores the importance of monitoring CUPs in indoor environments and sheds light on their potential health risks.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are ubiquitous, persistent organic pollutants increasingly detected in food crops, yet their accumulation capacities and regulatory factors across various plant species remain poorly resolved. Here, we investigated the bioaccumulation patterns of PFAS in 20 vegetable species and their relations with root chemical traits in farmland irrigated with treated wastewater. Leafy vegetables (e.g., Lactuca sativa and Spinacia oleracea) accumulated substantially higher PFAS concentrations (mean: 9.24 ng/g) than the root vegetable Daucus carota, with the short-chain perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) identified as the dominant species for all vegetables. PFBA showed the strongest mobility and tended to accumulate in edible aerial tissues of leafy vegetables, whereas long-chain PFASs were largely retained in roots. Across vegetable species, root PFBA concentration increased with the proportion of alkyl carbon and decreased with the proportion of O-alkyl carbon in roots, whereas the long-chain perfluorononanoic acid concentration increased with dissolved organic carbon concentration in roots. PFAS exposure could be decreased by up to 90% by consuming low-concentration vegetable varieties instead of high-concentration ones. These findings highlight the critical role of plant traits and rhizosphere chemistry in governing PFAS uptake pathways and suggest that crop selection and rhizosphere management can inform risk mitigation.