Tropical rainforests harbor exceptional biodiversity and function, but are increasingly threatened by agricultural expansion. Whether landscape heterogeneity mitigates these impacts, as in temperate systems, remains unclear. Here, we quantified how local land use and landscape heterogeneity shape multidiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality, using 34 biodiversity metrics and 21 functions across 128 plots in Sumatra. Relative to rainforests, plantations reduced multidiversity and multifunctionality by ~25%, with stronger aboveground declines, lower plant and animal but higher microbial diversity. Contrary to temperate systems, landscape heterogeneity did not buffer local land-use effects but exacerbated declines in multidiversity and multifunctionality, and benefits of surrounding-rainforest cover were confined to rainforest fragments rather than plantations. Our results highlight the irreplaceability of continuous tropical rainforests, and the limited transferability of temperate-based landscape conservation strategies.

Biological pest control is a vital ecosystem service in agriculture, with birds and bats acting as key natural predators of crop pests. However, their relative contributions and how these vary with landscape characteristics remain unclear. We examined the roles of birds and bats in pest control in intensively managed macadamia orchards in South Africa. Using visual and acoustic monitoring, nut quality assessments, and predator exclusion experiments, we examined their influence on insect damage and the effect of landscape characteristics (i.e., cover of natural habitat, altitude, and orchard edges) on predator diversity, composition, and pest control. Excluding birds and bats increased insect damage to nuts from 6.2% to 10.7% (a 70% relative increase). Bat activity reduced damage, with stronger effects in areas with less cover of natural habitat. In contrast, bird abundance did not affect insect damage. Despite these benefits, predator exclusion did not impact yield. Instead, yield followed a unimodal relationship with cover of natural habitat, peaking at 60% and remaining substantially elevated even in landscapes with higher habitat cover. Bird and bat species richness remained high across orchards. Bird community composition varied between orchard edges and centers: forest species were more common at edges, while open-habitat species dominated centers. Bat diversity increased with natural habitat cover but was unaffected by other landscape characteristics. Our findings underscore the importance of natural habitats for biological pest control in agricultural landscapes. By promoting richness and activity of complementary functional predator groups, natural habitats can improve crop quality by indirectly reducing insect damage and thus contribute considerably to agricultural productivity.

We report the first predation event of a northern silky anteater by a tiger rat snake. This predation underscores how little is known about the nocturnal anteater and its predators. As the snake is commensal with humans, anthropogenic habitat alterations might have exposed the anteater to a novel predation pressure.

Most agricultural landscapes are composed of a variety of habitats. A landscape perspective is needed to understand biodiversity decline, but many studies focus on single habitat types. In addition, the use of local resources by species within and across habitats implies that species and their habitats are linked in species-habitat networks. However, studies on these networks are scarce. Here, we used grid-based sampling to assess wild bees at 224 sampling locations across all major habitat types, that is, arable land, grassland, forest and orchard, in 14 differently composed agricultural landscapes of Southern Germany. We assigned wild bees to habitat types based on the dominant habitat cover surrounding their sampling location to establish species-habitat networks and assessed how these networks differed in modularity and robustness to habitat loss. Orchards harbored more wild bees than expected based on their proportional cover in the landscape, indicating a preference for this extensively managed but threatened habitat by wild bees. Orchards also supported the highest species richness and proportion of oligolectic wild bees, while forests harbored the lowest richness and more social species. Landscape diversity affected both structure and robustness of bee-habitat networks in response to the simulated loss of habitats. Networks in more diverse landscapes had higher modularity but tended to be less robust, showing that greater landscape diversity and modularity do not necessarily buffer against the effects of habitat loss. However, this effect appeared to be mainly driven by increases in network size, as standardized modularity and robustness (z-scores) were not affected by landscape diversity. We could show that species-habitat networks are a powerful tool to inform ecologists and policy makers about the importance of key habitats and landscape diversity for species conservation. Key habitats for wild bee conservation include extensively managed habitats like traditional orchards. Nevertheless, all habitat types support a similar proportion of endangered species, emphasizing the importance of a diverse landscape. Conserving wild bees requires a variety of complementary habitats at the landscape scale and must consider the management of traditional and intensively managed habitats alike. Policy measures targeting landscape diversity are urgently needed.

The white mango scale, Aulacaspis tubercularis Newstead (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), is one of the most destructive pests of mango worldwide. Its current management in most of the invaded areas largely depends on the intensive use of chemical insecticides. Biological control using parasitoids represents one of the most effective and environmentally sustainable management options. However, in Kenya, one of Africa's leading mango-producing countries, no effective parasitoid species associated with A. tubercularis had previously been recorded. This study aimed to identify encyrtid parasitoids associated with A. tubercularis in Kenya, and to assess how bioclimatic factors influence their occurrence and habitat suitability. Mango leaves infested with A. tubercularis were collected from 65 mango orchards across 10 counties, with sampling sites at least 4 km apart. Newly emerged parasitoids were reared on A. tubercularis for three successive generations to confirm host suitability and successful parasitism. Morphological and molecular identification of the recovered parasitoids revealed Arrhenophagus chionaspidis Aurivillius (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) as the only parasitoid that parasitized the male A. tubercularis. This parasitoid species was widely distributed, occurring in 60 out of the 65 sampled orchards. Ecological niche modelling indicated that major mango-growing areas in Kenya in the western, eastern, central, and coastal regions represent moderately to highly suitable habitats for A. chionaspidis under current and projected climatic conditions in the year 2070. The widespread occurrence and predicted persistence of A. chionaspidis highlight its potential for biological control of A. tubercularis in Kenya and other mango-producing regions of Africa.

Microhabitat-specific responses of soil organisms to land-use intensification remain a major blind spot in biodiversity research. Here, we assessed how protists-key regulators of microbial diversity and nutrient cycling-differ in composition and roles across litter, rhizosphere, and bulk soil along a land-use gradient of increasing management intensity, from rainforest to shrubland, rubber plantations, and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia. High-throughput sequencing revealed that rhizosphere protists responded most strongly to land-use intensification, with a 39.6% increase in Shannon index and marked shifts in community composition. Bulk soil protists showed similar but weaker responses, while litter protists exhibited compositional shifts without significant α-diversity changes. Notably, protist community composition was differentially structured by abiotic and biotic drivers across microhabitats independent of land-use type, with biotic dominance in the rhizosphere, abiotic dominance in litter, and joint control in bulk soil. To assess functional turnover, we applied an ecological niche framework (generalist-specialist-opportunist). Generalists remained stable in litter, whereas specialists showed reduced niche breadth and richness in rhizosphere and bulk soil, particularly in oil palm plantations, and opportunists showed intermediate responses. These findings demonstrate that land-use intensification restructures belowground communities in a microhabitat-specific and functionally predictable manner. By explicitly separating litter, rhizosphere, and bulk soil microhabitats, our study reveals microhabitat-specific assembly processes overlooked in conventional bulk-soil analyses and provides new insights into protist responses to land-use intensification in tropical soils. These findings highlight the need to incorporate microhabitat-scale processes when assessing soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under environmental change.

1. Animal-mediated seed dispersal sustains plant diversity and ecosystem functioning, particularly in fragmented landscapes. However, the specific contributions of nocturnal frugivores, particularly in above-ground (arboreal) strata, are often overlooked, leading to incomplete characterization of seed-dispersal networks. 2. In a dam-created archipelago in subtropical China (Thousand Island Lake), we used arboreal camera traps to quantify the role of nocturnal mammals in plant-frugivore networks and to examine how island area and isolation shape these nocturnal interactions and overall network structure. 3. We monitored frugivory events on fleshy-fruited plants across 13 forest islands and constructed quantitative bipartite networks to compare diel (i.e. day-night) interaction patterns and their response to island biogeographic variables. 4. Despite being represented by only two families (Muridae and Viverridae), nocturnal arboreal mammals accounted for similar to 20% of all interaction events, a substantial share second only to the dominant diurnal avian family Pycnonotidae (bulbuls). Island area positively predicted nocturnal interaction richness and its proportional contribution, whereas isolation had no significant effect. Incorporating nocturnal interactions increased network modularity and decreased nestedness, indicating temporal niche partitioning, while connectance remained unchanged. This network reorganization was consistent across the island area gradient. 5. Our study demonstrates that nocturnal arboreal mammals substantially influence the structure of seed-dispersal networks. Omitting their interactions underestimates network compartmentalization and overlooks key dispersal pathways. We emphasize the conservation value of large forest fragments for supporting temporally complementary disperser assemblages and robust mutualistic networks, and we recommend the integration of diel-scale, vertical-strata sampling into ecological network studies, while noting that generalizations to bat-rich tropical systems should be made cautiously.

Agricultural commercialization through the establishment of large plantations in tropical and subtropical areas contributes to rural economic development but frequently results in environmental degradation. We analyze income, inequality, and ecological functions in an oil palm–dominated village economy in Jambi, Indonesia. To this end, we develop an ecologically extended village-level Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) that explicitly considers large-scale plantations and local palm oil processing. Palm oil dominates this economy accounting for 74% of its GDP, with palm oil processing generating about half of total output and corresponding income earned by the company outside the village economy. We compare smallholder- and large-scale-plantation-driven under different land conversion scenarios. When expansion is driven by smallholders we see strong local income multipliers through consumption linkages. Plantation-led expansion yields somewhat weaker spillovers but channels income toward poorer labor and non-farm households through wage and service linkages. Ecological responses differ systematically across pathways: Land-intensive smallholder expansion reduces carbon storage, whereas more intensive large-scale production exacerbates nutrient leaching and soil acidification risks. The order of magnitude of income gains by forest conversion suggests that carbon compensation mechanisms, even at relatively low levels of carbon prices, could plausibly offset income foregone from avoided deforestation.

Soil fauna contributes to a wide range of ecosystem functions via their trophic activities. Here we investigate how trophic diversity of soil animals varies across functional groups and major biomes. We use stable isotope analysis (13C/12C and 15N/14N ratios) of 17,306 samples of 28 high-rank taxa from 456 sites across 19 countries to inspect the variability in trophic diversity across climate regions and land-use types. Trophic diversity of soil animal communities is higher for microbial feeders than for detritivores and predators, in agricultural ecosystems compared with woodlands (+32%) and in tropical compared with temperate climates (+40%). Higher trophic diversity is related to more diverse basal resources and longer trophic chains, which could reflect greater niche partitioning in resource-limited environments. Our findings suggest that soil animals could broaden their trophic niches under agricultural land use and possibly in response to warming, but whether such foraging flexibility may offset the loss of trophic specialists remains to be investigated.

European bat species are protected under European conservation legislation, but more than half of those in Germany are threatened. One reason for their decline is agricultural intensification. However, large-scale studies on bat foraging behaviour in Central European agricultural landscapes disentangling the importance of local and landscape-scale habitats are lacking. To fill this gap, we set up 224 automated recorders across 14 agricultural landscapes representing a gradient of landscape diversity. Furthermore, we assessed local cover of four habitat types (arable land, forest, grassland, orchard), local habitat diversity, hedge and forest-edge length within 100 m of recording locations, and distance to the closest forest. Landscape diversity had a strong positive effect on narrow-space foragers. In contrast, landscape diversity did not affect bat activity at the local scale but modified local habitat effects, weakening the positive effect of local habitat diversity on edge-space foragers in more diverse landscapes. Bat guilds responded differently to local habitats: edge-space foragers benefited from linear woody elements such as hedgerows and forest edges, open-space foragers preferred open habitats including arable land and grasslands, and narrow-space foragers were more active closer to forests. Surprisingly, orchards had no significant effect on any bat guild, despite their structural complexity previously being associated with increased bat activity. Our results demonstrate that local habitat characteristics determine fine-scale habitat-use patterns, while landscape diversity influences both landscape-scale bat activity and the strength of local habitat effects. Conservation strategies should therefore promote heterogeneous agricultural landscapes with a diverse mosaic of complementary habitat types.

Invasive animal species are spreading rapidly across the globe, creating an urgent need for efficient early-detection and monitoring tools. Passive acoustic monitoring has become an established method in biodiversity research, but its application to invasive species monitoring has been less systematically explored. Here, we combine a systematic literature review with a field-based case study to evaluate the potential of passive acoustic monitoring for invasive animal detection. We identified 26 studies on acoustic monitoring of invasive animals, mainly addressing amphibians (11 studies), birds and fish (five each) with most studies from the USA and Australia. The use of acoustic monitoring of invasive species has increased during the past decade, with recent studies applying automated detection, machine learning, and large-scale monitoring frameworks. As a case study, we further tested the feasibility of low-cost acoustic monitoring of the invasive American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus or Aquarana catesbeiana) in southwestern Germany, combined with automated identification using BirdNET. We successfully confirmed bullfrog presence in five of the eleven monitored lakes, including sites close to protected nature reserves. Our results highlight the growing potential of passive acoustic monitoring of invasive species under field conditions. In combination with automated species detection, manual validation, and emerging real-time monitoring devices, passive acoustic monitoring becomes an increasingly powerful tool for early intervention and scalable management of biological invasions.

Coffee is one of the most traded tropical crops, cultivated in some of the most biodiverse regions on the planet. Coffee production can be seriously reduced by the coffee berry borer (CBB), a specialized beetle that feeds on the endosperm of coffee berries. Given the CBB's economic relevance, coffee-producing countries have developed extensive Integrated Pest Management programs. Nonetheless, most of these programs fail to incorporate CBB control by natural enemies such as birds and ants. While the effects of birds and ants on CBB suppression have been demonstrated to be positive when studied in isolation, their interactive effects have been little studied. To better understand the effects of the trophic interaction between birds and ants on CBB control, we conducted a full-factorial block experiment excluding birds and ants from coffee shrubs. We distributed 49 experimental blocks across three different coffee systems in a Colombian landscape: sun-exposed coffee, coffee-plantain intercropping, and shade coffee. We found birds to be key control agents of CBB: in the presence of ants, bird exclusion increased CBB infestation by 36%. However, in the absence of ants, birds had little effect on CBB infestation, demonstrating that the effects of birds and ants were non-additive. This suggests that birds control CBB through a trophic cascade mediated by ants. We also found that the effects of exclusions were modified by the cultivation system, with the shade coffee system consistently reducing CBB infestation. Our experiment demonstrates that crop diversification is an effective measure for integrating local enemies into IPM strategies. Nonetheless, we acknowledge that trophic interactions are highly complex and exhibit a context-dependency that can result in the suppression of biological pest control. Therefore, we recommend conducting future analysis on evaluating the effects of predator´s community composition to encourage the development of IPM programs that leverage biodiversity in agroecosystems.

Birds are declining worldwide, with farmland birds disproportionately affected. Most studies on farmland birds focus on single habitat types, yet agriculturally dominated landscapes are mosaics composed of multiple habitat types like arable land, grassland, forests, and orchards. We aimed to understand how these habitat types jointly shape farmland bird diversity, particularly regarding local and landscape drivers of alpha and beta diversity. We used passive acoustic monitoring to survey farmland bird communities in 14 mosaic agricultural landscapes (1 km2) in southern Germany that differ in habitat diversity. In total, 224 autonomous recording units were deployed in a grid-based design with sampling intensity proportional to habitat area. Using BirdNET and manual validation, we identified 54 bird species from 2016 h of recordings collected over 4.5 months. Local species richness (alpha diversity) increased with habitat heterogeneity at both local and landscape scales. Arable sites showed the lowest alpha diversity but comparatively high within-habitat beta diversity, whereas orchards supported high alpha but low within-habitat beta diversity. Beta diversity was highest between habitat types, especially between forests and arable land, reflecting strong contrasts in their structural complexity. Generalized dissimilarity modelling showed that local predictors were more important than landscape-level predictors in explaining bird beta diversity. Habitat associations of bird species were largely consistent with ecological expectations: bird species adapted to dense vegetation occurred mainly in forest-dominated sites, while open-habitat species were associated with arable land. Species with decreasing population trends occurred across all major habitat types. At the landscape scale, gamma diversity increased strongly with landscape diversity. Maintaining habitat heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales is critical to conserve farmland bird diversity.

Pollination is a key ecological process sustaining biodiversity and food security, yet global patterns of plant–pollinator specialisation have remained unresolved. Using the largest global dataset of quantitative networks (>3,400 networks, >110,000 interactions), we show that the latitudinal specialisation gradient (LSG) exists, but it is non-linear, hemispherically asymmetric, and strongly taxon-dependent. Network-level and pollinator specialisation were lowest in the tropics and peaked at northern mid-latitudes, whereas plants tended to become more specialised toward higher latitudes. Climate consistently outperformed latitude, species richness, and environmental productivity as a predictor of these patterns. Specialisation declined with increasing temperature, rose with moderate rainfall before declining at the wettest sites, and increased with temperature seasonality, but plants and pollinators responded differently to these drivers. Functional groups diverged strongly: ectothermic insects were most specialised in cooler, seasonal climates, while birds showed weaker links to latitude but reduced specialisation in wetter regions. These findings demonstrate that climate, rather than latitude or species richness, structures global variation in specialisation. Because warmer and less seasonal climates promote generalisation, climate change is likely to disrupt the most specialised pollination systems, unevenly across taxa and regions, with important consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem stability. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Czech Science Foundation, https://ror.org/01pv73b02, 21-24186M, 19-14620S Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, https://ror.org/012kf4317, 1134644 São Paulo Research Foundation, 2023/03083-6, 2023/02881-6, 2023/17728-9 Consulate General of France in São Paulo Bavarian State Ministry of Science and Art Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change CEPID-FAPESP, 2021/10639-5 National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, CNPq, 308559/2022-3, 141736/2020-8, 311665/2022-5, 400904/2019-5, 423939/2021-1, 310508/2019-3, 309893/2023-2, 177005/2024-6, 305204/2024-6 CAPES, Finance Code 001; COOPBRASS: 88887.947041/2024-00, 177005/2024-6, PROEX 88882.347259/2019-01 Brazilian Biodiversity Fund, FunBio, 004/2021, 029/2022 Rufford Foundation, https://ror.org/02bxrrf91, 377031, 28478-1 German Research Foundation DFG, 152112243 Dirección General de Investigación, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, 4.8.63.2.27-2012, 4.8.63.8.60-2018, 4.8.63.4.41-2020 FAPEMIG, RED-00039-23 INCT Pollination (CNPq/CAPES/FAPERJ Call 58/2022) Faculty for Future, Schlumberger Foundation the Human Frontier Science Program, RGP023/2023 European Research Council ERC, 101054177, 819374 Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, KAW 2019.0202 LIFE project Olivares Vivos+, LIFE20 NAT/ES/001487 Missouri Department of Conservation, K02442-PI0242-022 National Science Foundation, DGE-2244337 OAPN, 014/2009 CONAHCYT, CBF2023-2024-216 Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, PID2021-127900NB-I00, PGC2018-098498-A-100, RYC2021-032351-I Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection, 121-5-13 German Research Foundation DFG, FZT 118, 202548816

Seed dispersal by frugivorous birds underpins forest regeneration and biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapes. Migratory frugivores, through their seasonal movements, connect distant plant populations, but their roles in plant-bird interaction networks remain poorly quantified amid global declines in migratory bird populations. How these birds mediate plant-animal interactions across space and time, and how they functionally differ from residents, remains unclear. Using arboreal camera trapping over three fruiting seasons (2019-2022), we recorded 10,992 interactions (343 unique links) between 31 fleshy-fruited plants and 48 bird species (15 migratory, 33 resident) across 13 reservoir islands in the Thousand Island Lake of China. Migratory birds accounted for 14 % of all interactions, with 99.3 % occurring during the autumn/winter fruiting peaks (October-January), and interacted with 67.7 % of the plant species. Despite their lower overall richness, smaller islands (<10 ha) hosted 43 % of migratory interactions, highlighting their importance as stopover sites. In contrast, larger islands (>30 ha) supported more frugivore richness but lower migratory proportions, acting as refugia for residents. Network analyses showed no significant differences in species roles (degree, species strength, specialization d') between migratory and resident birds though migrants expanded the spatial and temporal scope of seed dispersal. These findings challenge area-centric conservation priorities by revealing the complementary roles of small and large islands. We advocate conserving island networks through seasonal management aligned with fruiting phenology, restoring native fruiting plants with staggered phenologies to buffer climate-driven mismatches, and enhancing habitat connectivity to sustain seed dispersal and ecosystem resilience in fragmented landscapes.

Biotic interactions promote, maintain or reduce diversity within and between species. Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have thus long studied links between biotic interactions and biodiversity dynamics. Yet theoretical and empirical research on these links are still separated by a substantial gap. This gap arises because empiricists rarely quantify the fitness consequences of interactions whereas theoreticians often describe these consequences in a simplistic manner. To bridge this gap, we introduce the concept of ‘fitness landscapes of biotic interactions’ (FLINTs). These landscapes relate the fitness consequence of an interaction for a focal organism to traits of both the focal organism and the interaction partner. FLINTs are an important extension of classical fitness landscape theory since they resolve how biotic environments alter fitness landscapes. We summarize current knowledge about FLINTs and show that their topography can strongly deviate from simplistic trait-matching landscapes implicitly assumed in many theoretical studies. We then illustrate how FLINT topography shapes biodiversity dynamics using an example of co-evolutionary diversification in plants and flower-visiting insects. This leads us to outline a research agenda that measures real-world FLINTs and analyses their consequences for biodiversity dynamics. In summary, FLINTs are a novel framework that fosters integration of theoretical and empirical research on how biotic interactions shape biodiversity dynamics.

Context Farmland biodiversity continues to decline due to the expansion and intensification of agriculture. Historically, efforts to conserve farmland biodiversity have focused on conserving habitats outside agricultural production areas. More recently, attention has turned to the conservation potential of the cropland matrix, where reducing field size and increasing crop diversity to promote crop heterogeneity can significantly benefit farmland biodiversity. Bats are one group of farmland species that have experienced dramatic declines over recent decades. Objectives Here we investigated the effects of crop heterogeneity (crop diversity, field size) and landscape structural elements (e.g. length of linear structures, distance to forest, proportion of semi-natural habitat) on the activity of bat functional groups. Results Increasing crop diversity led to greater bat activity, especially for open space foraging bats. However, contrary expectations, bat activity was not affected by heterogeneity in crop configuration, i.e. field edge density. Furthermore, structural landscape elements, including hedgerows and distance to forest, were important predictors of bat activity, especially for species that hunt in highly cluttered spaces. While crop diversity clearly benefited bat activity, the lack of effect of crop configurational heterogeneity on bat foraging activity may suggest heterogeneityarea trade-offs and intensive pesticide use in small-scale vegetable production. Conclusions Therefore, in addition to maintaining high levels of crop diversity, promoting hedgerows and tree lines between farmland and woodland may facilitate bat activity across the agricultural landscape matrix. The combination of high crop heterogeneity and structural elements provides favorable hunting grounds for bats and may promote their conservation in agricultural landscapes.

Motivation Pollinators play a crucial role in maintaining Earth's terrestrial biodiversity. However, rapid human-induced environmental changes are compromising the long-term persistence of plant-pollinator interactions. Unfortunately, we lack robust, generalisable data capturing how plant-pollinator communities are structured across space and time. Here, we present the EuPPollNet (European Plant-Pollinator Networks) database, a fully open European-level database containing harmonised taxonomic data on plant-pollinator interactions referenced in both space and time, along with other ecological variables of interest. In addition, we evaluate the taxonomic and sampling coverage of EuPPollNet, and summarise key structural properties in plant-pollinator networks. We believe EuPPollNet will stimulate research to address data gaps in plant-pollinator interactions and guide future efforts in conservation planning. Main Types of Variables Included EuPPollNet contains 1,162,109 interactions between plants and pollinators from 1864 distinct networks, which belong to 52 different studies distributed across 23 European countries. Information about sampling methodology, habitat type, biogeographic region and additional taxonomic rank information (i.e. order, family, genus and species) is also provided. Spatial Location and Grain The database contains 1214 different sampling locations from 13 different natural and anthropogenic habitats that fall in 7 different biogeographic regions. All records are geo-referenced and presented in the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). Time Period and Grain Species interaction data was collected between 2004 and 2021. Major Taxa and Level of Measurement The database contains interaction data at the species level for 94% of the records, including a total of 1411 plant and 2223 pollinator species. The database includes data on 6% of the European species of flowering plants, 34% of bees, 26% of butterflies and 33% of syrphid species at the European level. Software Format The database was built with R and is stored in ‘.rds’ and ‘.csv’ formats. Its construction is fully reproducible and can be accessed at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14747448.