Medicinal plant utilization in the clinical management of metabolic disorders, including Diabetes Mellitus (DM) and its associated complications, has gained considerable scientific attention in recent decades. Their perceived tolerability positions them as viable complementary or adjunct options to standard pharmacological regimens. Purwoceng (Pimpinella pruatjan Molk.) is a plant indigenous to Indonesia that demonstrates notably high concentrations of antioxidant constituents. Given that oxidative stress constitutes a fundamental driver in the pathophysiology of DM, it is implicated in the development of complications including diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Objective: To review existing evidence on the potential of purwoceng in reducing blood glucose levels and repairing nerve damage in diabetic neuropathy, including its mechanisms, active compounds, and toxicity profile. Methods: A literature review was conducted using keywords including Pimpinella pruatjan/Molk, Purwoceng, Antioxidant, Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetic Neuropathy, and secondary metabolites. Relevant studies were selected and critically reviewed. Results: Several studies identified secondary metabolites in purwoceng, including phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, coumarins, saponins, terpenes, and steroids. These compounds exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, suggesting potential benefits in reducing hyperglycemia and preventing or repairing nerve damage in diabetic neuropathy. Available evidence also indicates no significant acute toxicity in renal and hepatic organs. Conclusion: Purwoceng exhibits promising potential as an adjunctive therapeutic agent in the management of Diabetes Mellitus and its neuropathic complication, mediated principally through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, with a favorable preliminary safety profile. Rigorous clinical investigations are warranted to substantiate its efficacy and safety in human subjects.

Coptotermes curvignathus is a termite pest that attacks buildings, plantations, and forests. Controlling this pest requires environmentally friendly natural materials. The bintaro plant (Cerbera odollam) are known in Indonesia as natural insecticides and traditional medicines because of their strong toxic properties, so they have the potential to be used in termite control. This study evaluated the efficacy of C. odollam leaf and fruit peel extracts as natural termiticides and their effectiveness against subterranean termite C. curvignathus. The extraction process used three solvents with different polarities: n-hexane, acetone, and ethanol. Anti-termite bioactivity tests were conducted following the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) 1571-2010 method. Ethanol extract from C. odollam leaves produced the highest yield (9.52%). Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, steroids, and saponins in both leaf and fruit peel extracts. The anti-termite bioactivity test showed that the leaf extract with acetone solvent caused 97.33% mortality, while the fruit peel extract with ethanol solvent caused 100% mortality at a 5% concentration. This study demonstrates that C. odollam leaf and fruit peel extracts have strong potential as natural termiticides.

Abstract Chinese cinnamon leaves ( Cinnamomum cassia ) are an underutilized agricultural by-product despite containing potential bioactive compounds. Utilizing these leaves as a raw material for essential oil production offers an environmentally friendly alternative for pest control. This study aimed to evaluate the physical characteristics and termite-repellent activity of essential oils extracted from fresh and fallen cinnamon leaves. The results showed that essential oil from fresh leaves had a higher yield (0.23 %) compared to that from fallen leaves (0.03 %), with a dominant eugenol content of 93.49 %. However, the oil from fallen leaves exhibited a lower LC 50 value (3.00 ppm) than that of the fresh leaves (3050 ppm), indicating higher termite-repellent efficacy. Additional compounds such as β -thujene and caryophyllene oxide found in the fallen leaf oil are suspected to contribute to its termite-repellent activity through additive effects and matrix-enhanced bioavailability. These findings suggest that fallen cinnamon leaves, often regarded as waste, have significant potential as an effective and eco-friendly termite control agent.

Background:: Protein--protein interaction (PPI) networks are commonly organized into functional modules, but strictly disjoint partitions may not fully represent proteins that occupy multiple community contexts. Existing overlapping community-detection methods may assign proteins to numerous communities, producing extensive multi-membership that can obscure functional interpretation and complicate downstream biological analysis. Consequently, there remains a need for controlled overlapping community detection that preserves functionally interpretable overlap while supporting community-informed protein prioritization. Methods:: We developed Crisp-to-Overlap Boundary Similarity (COBS), which starts from a greedy-modularity crisp partition, identifies boundary proteins, and assigns additional memberships using node-to-community neighborhood similarity followed by controlled merging. We further introduce overlapping community-consideration degree, closeness, and betweenness centralities that aggregate community-specific importance across all memberships while accounting for each protein's multiple modular contexts. Structural performance was examined on CORUM-derived, yeast, and breast cancer PPI networks. Protein rankings were evaluated by cumulative recovery of hallmark-associated proteins, and detected communities were characterized using Gene Ontology and KEGG enrichment. Results:: Across the CORUM-derived and yeast benchmark networks, COBS achieved the highest Shen modularity under the evaluated configurations (0.7026 and 0.5821, respectively), while showing lower conductance than the nearest competing methods by Shen modularity. In the breast cancer PPI network, controlled overlap assigned BRCA1 and STK11 to two topologically distinct communities with different enriched functional profiles, consistent with their reported multifunctional roles. OCCCC with $\alpha=0.1$, which integrates protein importance across overlapping communities, achieved the largest cumulative hallmark-recovery area through rank 75, although performance varied across ranking cutoffs. Functional enrichment associated the detected communities with complementary biological processes, including DNA repair, immune regulation, metabolism, RNA processing, Wnt signaling, and ubiquitination, supporting an interpretable relationship between network topology and functional annotation. Conclusions:: COBS provides a controlled crisp-to-overlap refinement that introduces limited, functionally interpretable multi-membership while restricting excessive community assignments. The proposed overlapping community-consideration centrality measures integrate overlapping modular context into protein prioritization, enabling proteins with multiple community memberships to be ranked while accounting for their importance across different modular contexts. Together, these methods provide an interpretable connection between overlapping PPI network organization and cancer-related functional annotations. Further validation using independent PPI networks, network-perturbation analyses, additional curated disease-gene benchmarks, and experimental studies is required to assess the robustness, generalizability, and biological relevance of the framework.

This study aims to develop an electrochemical sensor based on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with Fe3O4 and graphene for the detection of myristicin as a characteristic compound in nutmeg plants. Electrode modification materials were prepared from a combination of graphene and magnetite, synthesized via a hydrothermal method, and further characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope–energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The two modifying materials were then optimized, and the optimum conditions were obtained at a w/w ratio of 1:2, which was applied to the GCE surface using the drop-casting technique. The electrochemical performance of the Fe3O4/graphene-modified electrode was evaluated under optimum experimental conditions using a Britton–Robinson buffer solution at pH 5. The scan-rate analysis of the electrode to evaluate its electrochemical performance showed an increase in surface area from 0.101 cm2 for the bare GCE to 0.534 cm2 for the GCE/Fe3O4–graphene. Electroanalytical performance was evaluated using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), which showed a linear response over the concentration range of 1–100 µM, with a limit of detection of 0.19 µM and a limit of quantitation of 0.58 µM. The developed electrode was applied successfully to detect myristicin in nutmeg seed extract samples, and its calculated concentrations were not significantly different from those obtained with the GC-MS method. These results suggest that the developed sensor may have further potential as an alternative detection tool for characterizing electroactive compounds in nutmeg plants.

Myristicin is the key marker of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) quality, while methyl eugenol is an undesirable compound requiring strict monitoring. This study aimed to optimize the extraction conditions of these compounds from nutmeg seeds and mace as a pretreatment step prior to electrochemical quantification. Optimization was performed using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a Box–Behnken Design (BBD), considering extraction time (h), ethanol concentration (%), and the sample-to-solvent ratio (g/mL) as independent variables. The analytes were quantified by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and the experimental data were modeled using Design Expert software. Regression models indicated that ethanol concentration and solvent volume significantly influenced extraction yields, while extraction time had a statistically minimal effect (p-values > 0.05, small effect sizes). Nevertheless, practical differences were observed between matrices: nutmeg seeds reached optimal extraction within 2 hours, whereas mace required 17 hours, likely due to its higher essential oil content and fibrous structure, which slows diffusion kinetics. Thus, although time effects were not statistically significant, extended extraction was practically preferred for mace to ensure adequate recovery. Response definitions were specified as follows: Y1 = myristicin concentration (mg/mL), Y2 = methyl eugenol concentration (mg/mL), and % extraction yield. The optimal extraction conditions were achieved with 90% ethanol and 50 mL solvent, maximizing analyte detectability while maintaining reproducibility across seed and mace extracts. These optimized ethanolic matrices are compatible with subsequent electrochemical quantification, given their aqueous/ethanolic composition and anticipated sensitivity of electrochemical detection.

Paracoccus haeundaensis SAB E11 is a carotenoid producer that enhances the adaptive response of Schizosaccharomyces pombe ARC039 to oxidative stress. This study aimed to determine the optimal carbon and nitrogen sources and most suitable fermentation conditions for carotenoid production by P. haeundaensis SAB E11. The basic medium, seawater complete (SWC), was modified with various carbon sources (glycerol, glucose, sucrose, lactose, and starch) and nitrogen sources (beef extract, tryptone, ammonium sulfate, and ammonium chloride), and the temperature, pH, and salinity were adjusted. Treatments were assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significant variance was identified using Duncan's multiple range test. Optimal fermentation conditions for dry cell weight and total carotenoid were achieved using glycerol and beef extract as carbon and nitrogen sources at a salinity of 22.5%, a temperature of 27°C, and a pH of 7, resulting in dry cell weight and total carotenoid concentrations of 3.96±0.25 g/L and 44.65±2.22 μg/L, respectively. Under these conditions, the dry cell weight and total carotenoid content increased by 1.33-fold and 1.43-fold, respectively. The optimal conditions for carotenoid production by Paracoccus haeundaensis SAB E11 serve as a foundational reference for applications in food and pharmaceutical industries.

In this work, we have developed a novel electrochemical sensor based on a composite of hydroxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT-OH), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and chitosan nanofibers, which was deposited onto the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for the simultaneous detection of hydroquinone (HQ), resorcinol (RS), and salicylic acid (SA). The composite of MWCNT-OH/TiO2/Chitosan nanofibers was characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The optimal composition ratio of MWCNT-OH, TiO2, and chitosan nanofibers obtained from the mixture design was 0.76:0.04:0.2 (v/v), while the optimal pH condition for the simultaneous detection of HQ, RS, and SA was pH 6. A synergistic effect was observed in the GCE/MWCNT-OH/TiO2/chitosan nanofibers system, which exhibited an effective surface area 17 times that of the bare electrode. The sensor demonstrated high linear responses toward HQ (0.5-50 μM), RS (20-250 μM), and SA (20-250 μM) in simultaneous detection. The values of the limit of detection (LOD) (S/N ≈ 3) for HQ, RS, and SA were 0.0021 ± 0.0002, 0.0167 ± 0.0011, and 0.0193 ± 0.0004 μM, respectively. In addition, the values of the limit of quantification (LOQ) (S/N ≈ 10) for HQ, RS, and SA were 0.0070 ± 0.0007, 0.0556 ± 0.0036, and 0.0642 ± 0.0130 μM, respectively. The electrochemical performances also showed high reproducibility, stability, and selectivity. Thus, the sensor provides reliable simultaneous in situ detection in skincare samples, consistent with standard methods.

This study compared secondary-metabolite profiles, IC50-based antiproliferative activity, and relative selectivity of four Indonesian cardamom (Amomum compactum Soland. ex Maton) accessions: Bogor white, Bogor red, Sukabumi, and Ciamis. Ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts were evaluated in MCF-7, MCM-B2, and MCA-B1 tumor-derived cells, with Vero cells as a non-tumor-derived reference and profiled by untargeted LC-MS/MS. Putatively annotated metabolites were further assessed using chemometrics, terpenoid-focused network pharmacology, molecular docking, and 50 ns molecular dynamics simulation. Extract IC50 values ranged from 0.959 to 2.210 mg mL−1 in MCF-7, 0.818 to 2.733 mg mL−1 in MCM-B2, and 1.382 to 3.426 mg mL−1 in MCA-B1 cells, while Vero values ranged from 2.762 to 4.000 mg mL−1. MCF-7 cells generally showed the greatest overall sensitivity, although the lowest individual IC50 occurred with Sukabumi ethyl acetate extract in MCM-B2 cells. Ciamis ethyl acetate extract showed higher relative selectivity toward MCF-7 and MCM-B2 cells. LC-MS/MS putatively annotated 36 metabolites, with terpenoid-related compounds predominating. Kaur-16-ene was computationally prioritized based on predicted interactions with ESR1, EGFR, SCN5A, and CCND1 and short-timescale ESR1-complex stability. These findings demonstrate accession- and solvent-associated differences and support kaur-16-ene for further experimental validation.

The widespread use of hazardous ingredients, such as hydroquinone (HQ) and methylparaben (MP), in cosmetic products poses significant public health and safety risks, underscoring the urgent need for rapid and reliable analytical tools. To address this critical gap, we report the development of a highly efficient electrochemical sensor for the simultaneous detection of HQ and MP. The sensor is based on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) that is synergistically modified with a novel Pt nanocubes/TiO2/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (PtNCs/TiO2/MWCNTs) nanocomposite. The optimal composition of the nanocomposite was rigorously determined using a simplex lattice mixture design, which maximised the electrochemical oxidation current. The resulting optimized nanocomposite was then synthesized, structurally characterized using SEM-EDS and TEM, and subsequently drop-cast onto the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface. The sensor's performance was systematically investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), exhibiting well-defined oxidation peaks with wide linear detection ranges (4-350 mu M for HQ and 10-5000 mu M for MP), and remarkably low limits of detection (0.201 mu M for HQ and 0.50 mu M for MP). Furthermore, the sensor demonstrated exceptional repeatability and stability (RSD < 5%), high selectivity against common interferents, and excellent accuracy (recovery values ranging from 98.4% to 102.5%) when applied to commercial facial whitening creams. In conclusion, the developed PtNCs/TiO2/MWCNTs-modified GCE provides a practical, sensitive, and cost-effective platform for accurate, continuous monitoring of cosmetic safety.

Indonesia has long been known as a tropical country rich in various local cultivars of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), including Aceh Lebak (AL), Aceh Pelat (AP), Binjai (B), Gula Batu (GB), and Sikoneng (SK). Due to their phenolic and flavonoid compound, rambutan peel extracts have been reported to exhibit antioxidant and antiproliferative properties. Variation among cultivars suggests potential differences in bioactive compound content and biological activity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant and toxicity profiles of five rambutan peel varieties and their correlation with total phenolic compound (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). The antioxidant activity was evaluated using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, and phenolic and flavonoid contents were measured by colorimetric assays. Toxicity was assessed using the Brine Shrimp Lethality Test (BSLT). Bioautography analysis using TLC-DPPH was conducted to identify antioxidant-active compounds. In this study, all rambutan peel extracts indicated the presence of flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, steroids, alkaloids, and triterpenoids. The highest extract yield was observed in Sikoneng, also with the highest TPC and TFC values. The Binjai variety exhibited strong antioxidant activity (IC50 = 4.73 ± 0.19 mg/L) and three active antioxidant spots; however, it also exhibited toxicity (LC50 = 136.27 ± 6.58 mg/L). The correlation between total phenolic or flavonoid content and the observed biological activity was not statistically significant, indicating that additional metabolites or synergistic interactions may also contribute. These findings underscore the significant impact of biodiversity on differences in compound levels and potential biological activities among rambutan peel varieties.

Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) exhibits potential as a source of bioactive antibacterial compounds. In this study, the effect of solvent polarity on ultrasound-assisted extraction of M. azedarach leaves and twigs was evaluated in relation to their phytochemical composition and antibacterial activity against both non-resistant and multidrug-resistant bacteria. The results showed that solvent polarity significantly affected the extraction yield, with methanol and water producing yields above 10%. The methanol extracts of twigs and leaves exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity, showing greater potency against Escherichia coli than Bacillus subtilis. Consistent with these findings, the methanol extracts inhibited the growth of multidrug-resistant enteropathogenic E. coli K1-1, resulting in inhibition zone diameters of 10.93 mm (leaf) and 7.73 mm (twig). Furthermore, the methanol extract contained the highest levels of phenolic, flavonoid, and hydroxyl-rich compounds, which were associated with its antibacterial properties. In silico analysis further revealed that isofucosterol, meliasenin, and melianone exhibited strong predicted binding affinities to key antibacterial proteins, particularly those involved in multidrug-resistant bacterial mechanisms.

The antidiabetic properties of Uncaria gambir are not yet fully understood, particularly concerning how it affects diabetic animal models. Further investigation in this aspect is pivotal before initiating clinical evaluations. This study aimed to investigate the antidiabetic activity of U. gambir and how it influences blood glucose levels in diabetic Sprague–Dawley rats. In this study, 28 rats were divided into 7 groups. The groups were as follows: a nondiabetic rat group, a nondiabetic rat group given U. gambir, a diabetic rat group, a diabetic rat group given glibenclamide, and 3 diabetic rat groups given U. gambir at 3 doses (200, 300, and 400 mg/kg). Diabetes was induced using streptozotocin (50 mg/kg) given by intraperitoneal injection. Blood glucose levels were measured weekly, and the animals were euthanized at the end of the experiment. Intracardiac blood and tissues such as the pancreas, liver, and skeletal muscle were collected for further analysis. The results showed that administering U. gambir to diabetic rats resulted in significantly lower blood glucose levels than untreated diabetic rats. U. gambir has a complex mechanism to reduce blood glucose levels. including increase of insulin production, preservation of the islets and pancreatic β cells, and optimization of glycogenesis, as reflected in a significant increase in liver glycogen levels. These findings suggest that U. gambir’s multicompound and multitarget capabilities in controlling blood glucose levels may have utility for treatment of diabetes.

Neurodegenerative diseases are marked by the progressive loss of specific neurons, leading to cognitive and motor impairments. This neurodegeneration occurs gradually and silently over the years, with continuous neuronal cell death before clinical symptoms emerge. Neuroprotection, which seeks to prevent or minimize neuronal damage, has gained increasing attention, particularly through natural compounds—as potential therapeutic agents. Amaranthus has demonstrated antioxidant, neuroprotective, and antidepressant properties; however, further biochemical investigations are required. This study integrates protein–protein interaction network (PPIN) analysis, molecular docking-based virtual screening, and molecular dynamics to identify key neuroprotective targets and bioactive compounds in Amaranthus. PPIN analysis of 27 neuroprotection-related proteins identified key hub proteins, including Dopamine D2 receptor (D2), metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGlu2), 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1A (5HT1A), γ-aminobutyric acid B receptor (GABAb), metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGlu3), SERT (serotonin reuptake transporter), cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1), Milestones of Recovery Scales (MORs), and monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) that play critical roles in neuronal survival and neurotransmission. Molecular docking-based virtual screening identified 10 ligands targeting MAOB, mGlu2, mGlu3, and GABAb receptors exhibiting lower binding energies than control ligands, suggesting strong interactions. Among these, dihydrokaempferol showed the most favorable profile, combining high binding affinity, strong predicted bioactivity, and interaction stability in molecular dynamics simulations, despite some pharmacokinetic limitations” might better reflect the nature of the findings. These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of Amaranthus-derived compounds for neurodegenerative diseases.

ABSTRACT The Fabaceae family is known for producing a diverse range of secondary metabolites having biological activity, including analgesic, anti‐inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antirheumatic, antibacterial, and cytotoxic properties. Three Fabaceae species, Pterocarpus indicus , Adenanthera pavonina , and Falcataria falcata , possess pharmacological potential that has not been thoroughly investigated. The goals of this study were (1) to determine the antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli of leaves and twigs extract of these three Fabaceae species and (2) to identify the putative secondary metabolites in the leaves and twigs of the species exhibiting the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) against B. subtilis and E. coli . The dried leaves and twigs of P. indicus , A. pavonina , and F. falcata were extracted using ultrasonic‐assisted extraction, followed by an antibacterial bioassay utilizing broth dilution procedures. Qualitative and semiquantitative phytochemical screening was then carried out. Chemical substances were detected using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analysis. F. falcata leaves methanol extract had MIC 1.30 mg/mL and MBC 5.00 mg/mL against B. subtilis and had trice higher antibacterial activity than P. indicus and A. pavonina . However, F. falcata leaves ethyl acetate extract had MIC 0.30 mg/mL and MBC 1.0 mg/mL against E. coil , twice higher than P. indicus and A. pavonina extract. This also positively correlated with the flavonoid contents obtained; F. falcata leaves ethyl acetate extract had higher, that is, 43.93 ± 3.56 mg QE/g extract. However, the highest total phenolic content was found in the methanol leaf extract of P. indicus , although the methanol leaf extract of F. falcata was still relatively large, namely, 172.79 ± 1.51 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g extract. LC–MS analysis revealed that F. falcata extract included phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, and carboxylic acids. Almost all extracts contained the active component kaempferol.

This community engagement program aimed to strengthen health resilience among women in Sukabumi by enhancing their understanding of hypertension and diabetes, while also building practical skills in preparing local herbal beverages and natural handwash products. A total of twenty-five PKK members from Karangtengah Village participated in structured educational sessions delivered by medical lecturers, baseline screening of blood pressure and blood glucose levels, and hands-on training utilizing locally available resources. Participants’ knowledge was assessed using matched pre- and post-tests, while behavioural adoption was evaluated through post-intervention self-reports. The screening results revealed that a substantial proportion of participants exhibited elevated blood pressure and/or blood glucose levels, highlighting the relevance and urgency of the program. Significant improvements in knowledge were observed across all assessed domains, including risk factors, early symptoms, preventive lifestyle practices, and recognition of locally available herbal ingredients. All knowledge gains were statistically significant, indicating effective health information transfer. The practical training component further enhanced participants’ confidence and self-efficacy, as reflected by a high intention to adopt the recommended practices in daily life. Overall, the program demonstrated that community-based, participatory health education combined with culturally appropriate practical training can effectively enhance health knowledge, support positive behavioural change, and promote sustainable household health practices in rural communities.

The increasing awareness of the importance of a healthy lifestyle has encouraged individuals to consume functional food rich in bioactive components. Mushroom polysaccharides, particularly those extracted from edible Heimioporus sp., have been reported to exhibit antioxidant, antibacterial and hypoglycemic activity. Nevertheless, the prebiotic and immunomodulatory potential of Heimioporus sp. remains underexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the prebiotic and immunomodulatory potential of Heimioporus sp. polysaccharide (HP) extracted using ultrasound-assisted hot water extraction. The prebiotic potential was evaluated using L. acidophilus IFO 13951 and B. breve ATCC 15700 for its prebiotic score, pH changes, and production of shortchain fatty acids (SCFAs). Furthermore, its immunomodulatory potential was assessed via nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 cells followed by HP composition analysis using HPLC. The results demonstrated that HP exhibited high prebiotic scores in L. acidophilus (56.01) and B. breve (55.53) after 48 h of incubation. HP fermented by B. breve was shown to have a lower pH than L. acidophilus, whereas SCFAs produced mainly acetic acid with a concentration of 42.66 mM and 24.08 mM, respectively. The immunomodulatory activity proved HP could modulate the immune system by increasing the NO level in non-LPS-induced macrophage similar to positive control (28.52 %), although its inflammatory mechanism requires further study. Most of the HP composition was fructooligosaccharide, which confirms its potential. Thus, HP show potential as prebiotics for gut health and functional food applications.