The majority of studies of the effectiveness of comparative advertising (CA) have been primarily focused on America and Asia than on European countries. The transferability of comparative advertising practices across markets is still largely unexplored notwithstanding that the effects of CA may vary according to the degree of novelty of comparative advertisements in the country (Nye et al. 2008). This observation is particularly interesting in Europe where countries such as the United Kingdom and Sweden have used CA for a longer period than France (Diannoux and Herrmann 2000). This study examines for the first time the role of opportunity, ability, and motivation to process the message on perceived manipulative intent and consumer evaluations of advertising by proposing a model of effectiveness of direct and indirect comparative advertising.

The theory of regionalization (Rugman and Verbeke 2004) poses that multinational enterprises (MNEs) operate successfully at a regional rather than global level, hence making the study of regional strategies both topical and imperative. This paper contributes to the limited research on regional advertising standardization by studying the influence of culture and economic integration on advertising standardization at the regional vs. the broader international level. It does so using data gathered from subsidiary managers in the Latin American trading bloc Mercosur and, by taking a novel, process oriented perspective to standardization measurement based on how standardization is implemented rather than planned.

Purpose The aim of this paper is to gain a better understanding of how small technology start‐ups learn about a key customer in the context of B2B relationships, and to propose a model of interfirm learning with customers. Design/methodology/approach Using a qualitative case‐based approach, the authors immerse themselves in the development of three learning alliances between technology startups and industry leaders, two successes and one failure, to gain an in‐depth understanding of the dynamics involved. Data were collected on both sides of the alliance dyad. Findings The paper delineates four learning cycles: alliance inception, joint‐learning, specialization and discovery. These learning cycles constitute sequences of increasing understanding, cooperation, and higher order learning between the partners; evolving from an exchange of existing knowledge to the joint development of new knowledge. Originality/value This study contributes to an integration of the alliance and marketing literatures by offering empirical evidence of a different type of alliance, namely the reciprocal learning alliance. It also contributes to broadening our understanding of market orientation in inter‐organizational settings. In the context of business‐to‐business relationships, the study has identified four critical dimensions of learning alliance success, and proposed how they could be measured: Learn about customers; Interact with customers; Customer‐specific investments; and Co‐develop breakthrough innovations. Finally, the study demonstrates the significant role played by “committed champions”.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the 29 years of research published in International Marketing Review (IMR) since its inception.Design/methodology/approachA brief editorial history of the journal is chronicled, and its output is discussed. Special attention is focused upon journal content, authorship analysis, and methodological issues.FindingsThe authors find: IMR publishes articles that often focus on export and global marketing, with consumer behavior and branding being the fastest growing content areas; IMR's frequent contributors consist of world renowned experts in international marketing and business and have become more diverse; and the authors of IMR use a wide variety of data collection and analysis methods.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors conclude that IMR exhibits the characteristics of a mature and leading journal in the field of international business. To assist IMR in maintaining its significant impact on marketing scholarship, the paper outlines some possible directions for the future.Originality/valueThis article analyzes the 29 years of research published in International Marketing Review (IMR) since its inception. To assist IMR in maintaining its significant impact on marketing scholarship, it also outlines some possible directions for the future.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address the issue of the implementation of international advertising strategies by first introducing a framework of four options that multinational enterprises (MNEs) can use to implement such strategies and second by drawing on contingency theory to develop and test hypotheses relating to how environmental factors and company characteristics affect such implementation.Design/methodology/approachHypotheses are tested using web‐survey data obtained from 182 Latin American managers based in the Mercosur trading bloc.FindingsFindings show that the choice of implementation process option is contingent on the environmental factor, cultural homogeneity and the company characteristics subsidiary size and MNE country‐of‐origin, yet not on regional economic integration.Research limitations/implicationsThis exploratory study contributes to advertising theory by offering an alternative approach to the consideration of the international advertising standardization question that focuses on the implementation of strategies rather than on their development. The findings further confirm the theory of regional multinationals in the context of international advertising decisions.Practical implicationsThe study presents practitioners with four distinct approaches to implementing their international advertising strategies as well as with clear guidelines as to how managers should implement those strategies depending on the specific benefits of standardization they want to achieve.Originality/valueTo the knowledge of the authors, this study is the first to specifically address the implementation of international advertising strategies.

Asymmetric alliances, those between small technology ventures and large industry players, defy established wisdom regarding the positive relationship between alliance partner similarities and alliance performance. What can we learn from these increasingly prevalent alliance forms to inform and extend alliance theory and practice? To help answer this question, this paper reports on the qualitative study of three asymmetric alliances, one failure and two successes, identifies key conceptual differences between symmetric and asymmetric alliances not addressed in the literature to date, suggests research opportunities and makes recommendations on how technology entrepreneurs can manage their relationship with large partners.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to establish a framework for clarifying and extending the concept of inter‐firm market orientation (IMO) and to complement the relatively small body of literature related to this concept.Design/methodology/approachThe conceptual framework is informed by empirical research based on a longitudinal multi‐case study.FindingsThis research identifies a nexus linking IMO with value creation in inter‐firm partnerships. The findings also suggest that IMO has an impact on companies' performance in terms of knowledge transfer, innovation and market access.Research limitations/implicationsIMO contributes to value creation processes in the context of strategic networks.Originality/valueA discussion of these findings, together with implications for practice and proposals for further research, is provided.

The global expansion of business has generated a tremendous interest among scholars, but there remains a strong need for theoretical insights into conducting marketing operations abroad. This thoroughly revised edition addresses this lack in the extant literature. The book consists of insights from leading scholars in international marketing, working not only to advance the theoretical underpinnings of today's most important international marketing issues, but also to provide insights for how the field of scholarship and practice of international marketing might develop in the future.

Purpose – First, this paper aims to uncover how much marketing research based on data gathered in Latin America has been published in high quality business and marketing academic journals over the past decade. Second, it seeks to present recommendations on best practice in conducting and publishing such research derived from a Delphi study of authors who succeeded in doing so.

Purpose - First, this paper aims to uncover how much marketing research based on data gathered in Latin America has been published in high quality business and marketing academic journals over the past decade. Second, it seeks to present recommendations on best practice in conducting and publishing such research derived from a Delphi study of authors who succeeded in doing so.Design/methodology/approach - The paper undertakes a systematic review of the literature to identify the relevant published papers coupled with a Delphi study of the authors of those papers.Findings - Over the last decade only 22 papers were published in high quality journals in the marketing area based on data gathered in Latin America. The reasons for this scarcity explored in the Delphi study derive both from the way in which high quality journals operate as well as from how authors conducting research in that area of the world design their studies and subsequently present them in manuscripts submitted to journals. Key recommendations include: focusing on novelty rather than replications, ensuring that studies have implications beyond Latin America, and positioning the research appropriately.Research limitations/implications - The main implication is that research conducted in Latin America is publishable in high quality journals if approached in the appropriate manner.Originality/value - This is, to the authors' knowledge, the first study to analyse the challenges involved in conducting and publishing marketing research based on data gathered in Latin America in high quality journals as well as the first to present solutions to those challenges.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to evaluate EU election data for the UK and Germany and examine the influence of promotional activity (party campaigning) and the different voting systems prevailing in these two countries – first past the post (FPTP) in the UK and proportional representation (PR) in Germany – on voter turnout.Design/methodology/approachThe paper takes the form of a binomial logistic regression analysis of individual‐level survey data from the European Election Studies (EES) archive.FindingsThe findings suggest a general link between electoral systems, party campaigning and voter turnout. Individuals are more likely to turn out under PR systems, while “party campaigning” – including door‐to‐door canvassing and leafleting – also had a substantial positive effect on self‐reported turnout.Research limitations/implicationsThe structure of the EES survey questions means that it is impossible to separate out which mode of campaigning (impersonal or face‐to‐face) is driving the observed strong positive relationship between the variable “party campaigning” and voter turnout. More survey research should be carried out to tease out which specific types of promotional activity have more of an influence on voter turnout. In addition, aggregate level research on campaigning patterns across countries with different voting systems would be helpful to explore this phenomenon in more depth.Originality/valueWhile research has been undertaken within the context of specific countries such as the UK, USA and New Zealand, there appears to have been no research reported within the context of the EU.

This paper is a response to calls for more research into the regional–as opposed to global–level of international business operations (Rugman and Verbeke, 2004). Focusing on a key issue in international management, the standardization decision, this paper presents a systematic review of top journal articles published over the last five decades on the subject of advertising standardization at the regional level. The results of this review demonstrate that in the last decade studies have frequently taken a regional rather than international focus of analysis, suggesting a shift in research in line with regionalization theory. However, this study also shows that research on regional standardization has lacked consistency in relation to how the phenomenon should be defined and measured. We present a conceptualization of measurement approaches to international advertising standardization, propose a typology of approaches and discuss their implications for knowledge advancement in the area.

Purpose This paper aims to examine the effects of compatible characteristics between parent firms on the extent to which international joint ventures (IJVs) acquire marketing knowledge. Compatible organisational characteristics are a particularly important component for absorptive capacity in that it may play a pivotal role in extending the prior relevant knowledge base and promoting a favourable learning environment. A series of hypotheses based on the literature is tested, which suggests that: there is a close association between IJV size and the level of knowledge acquisition, and compatible characteristics between parents positively influence marketing knowledge acquisition in IJVs. Design/methodology/approach The data were obtained by a survey. Questionnaires were posted to the CEOs of IJVs in Korea. A total of 688 questionnaires were sent out and 128 were returned, giving a response rate of 18.6 per cent. Findings The paper finds that the marginal differences in mean values indicate that firm size does not significantly influence the extent of knowledge acquisition in IJVs. A series of regression analyses was undertaken and it was found that the impact of compatible organisational culture on knowledge acquisition was positive and significant. Research limitations/implications There are some limitations to the study. First, the data used were collected from only one country. Second, only marketing skills were considered, leaving aside other important types of knowledge that can contribute to IJV operations. Third, the measurement used for the acquisition of marketing knowledge has some drawbacks, in that it is based on the perceptual judgements of key managers, without employing objective measurements. In addition, the relatively low response rate and the low number of responses from large firms are clearly further limitations. Practical implications The findings suggest that compatible culture should be a crucial partner selection criterion for both local and foreign firms. Originality/value Very few studies have analysed small and medium‐sized IJVs, and fewer have focused on marketing knowledge acquisition particularly in a dynamically energetic environment (South Korea in this case). The paper also contributes to the current literature by confirming the positive relationship between compatible organisational culture and marketing knowledge acquisition.

The status and understanding of marketing in the USSR and post-Soviet Russia are tracked over a 40-year period, making extensive use of Russian-language sources. In the late Soviet period marketing is seen as a Western business system that was not applicable to an economy based on extreme centralisation and state-inspired conditions of shortage. With the collapse of communism, marketing is variously seen as still not quite suitable for Russian conditions, as a sales support activity or as a branch of public relations. At the same time great confusion arises over the nature of marketing owing to the problems of converting Western marketing terms into Russian, for which there are often no equivalents. Translations of Western marketing textbooks reveal translators' unabated struggles with marketing terminology and the unsatisfactory results. Literal translations, where possible, or direct transliteration into Russian merely add to the confusion. It is argued that this state of affairs is symptomatic of a wider unease about the market economy and scepticism about its relevance for Russia.

Over the past decade there has been a growing interest in political marketing, in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere. In the political science field, similar work has been undertaken – although not, of course, using the vocabulary of marketing. However, while there seems to have been research into why voters vote in the way they do i.e. for which party, there appears to have been no research into how marketing activity can influence voter turnout. Theories of voter participation in political science fall broadly into two camps: sociological influences or rational choice. In other words, voter turnout is dependent on “something about citizens” or “something about elections”, with the main focus on the character of elections. However, there is also some recognition that voters’ interaction with parties and candidates is also important. This study evaluates EU election data for the UK and Germany and examines the impact of marketing activity (party campaigning) on voter turnout. Introduction This study focuses on how party campaigning plays a role in influencing voter participation using a logistic regression analysis of individual survey data from the European Election Studies (EES) archive. Franklin has argued that “turnout is a vitally important area of research that is very poorly understood (Franklin 2004: xii) [and that] further research is essential”. The paper proceeds as follows. The political marketing literature in briefly reviewed while existing literature on voter participation, highlighting the theoretical and methodological issues encountered by previous studies, and explicating the theory of rational choice institutionalism which underpins this paper is outlined. Then, several explicit hypotheses are developed from the theory, and the methodology used to test these hypotheses is discussed. The fourth section presents and analyses the findings, and the fifth concludes with some implications and suggestions for further research. The literature reviewed Over the past decade there has been a growing interest in political marketing, in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere. Research has included such developments as strategic analysis, social propaganda, corporate lobbying and the application of marketing management techniques to referenda. More recently, work on gender in electoral decision-making, branding of candidates and parties, and segmentation strategies in electoral campaigns has been undertaken. In 1996, Wring argued that, using a standard evolutionary model of marketing, it was possible to identify three key stages in the development of political marketing. He labelled these phases the propaganda, media and marketing orientation approaches to the electorate and electioneering. Using this framework, Wring was able to identify the role that basic marketing concepts have played in UK elections since the beginning of the 20th century. He argues that, contrary to popular belief, professional advertising and image consciousness date back to that time (the first “propaganda” stage of development). The second or “media” stage began with the acknowledgement that popular television and consumer marketing in the 1950s led to the need for coherent party image management. Finally, from the late 1970s the two main UK political parties developed a strategic marketing orientation approach. In contrast, O’Shaugnessy (2001) argues that “marketing is a business discipline whose relevance lies primarily in business: we should not assume that political contexts are ... analogous to business to the extent that methods can be imported and used with equal effect”. Research elsewhere (O’Cass, 1996) has suggested that the customer centred orientation of the marketing concept and approach is less significant in politics. Cass’ research in Australia found that the executive decision-making category of political respondents, in particular, felt that the role and significance of the voter was negligible in developing the political “product”. Nevertheless, research into voters from the political marketing perspective, has, of course, been undertaken. Hayes and McAllister (1996) have suggested that, rather than concentrating their efforts on floating voters – those who, in the UK make up a quarter of the electorate and who make up their minds only once an election campaign is well underway – political parties should target those voters who made up their minds in the one or two years prior to an election, using pre-campaign marketing techniques. Past research indicates that political campaigns lead to a better informed voting public, but that overall they tend to reinforce voters’ existing predispositions and comparatively few voters are influenced (McAllister, 1985; Miller, 1991). Hayes and McAllister (2001) have also studied the floating or “switch” voter, concentrating their attention on female voters in the 1997 UK general election. Using the British Election Survey data, they concluded that women were significantly more likely to delay their voting decision than men and that the campaigns of parties which targeted these voters (the so-called “Worcester woman” – female voters, usually working women, in marginal seats) appear to have been effective in mobilising their vote. Despite this apparent interest in the political campaign – the tactics of political marketing – and its influence on how voters vote, there seems to have been no research within the political marketing arena on whether political marketing is influential in determining whether the electorate votes at all. On the other hand, the political science literature makes the explicit link between voting systems and voter behaviour. Theories of voter participation fall broadly into two camps: sociological factors or rational choice (Clarke et al, 2004; Norris, 2004), essentially boiling down to whether levels of turnout are due to “something about citizens” or “something about elections” (Franklin, 2004, 3-4). In any large electorate the probability of casting a pivotal vote and influencing the electoral outcome is always so small that it discounts any potential direct benefits to the voter, so according to this model no rational individual would ever turn out to vote (Clarke et al, 2004). Thus the “paradox that ate rational choice theory” (Fiorina, 1990: 334) resulted in a renewed focus on the character of citizens rather than elections in explaining why people vote. Academics following Riker and Ordeshook (1967) developed the ‘resource-model’ of voter participation, which views voting as a habit learned (or not) during the formative years, which is determined above all by one’s education, income and class. Numerous subsequent studies have found evidence in support of demographic and/or psychological factors driving the individual decision to vote. For example, analyses of survey data have commonly found age and education to be the most important determinants of an individual’s likelihood to vote (e.g. Blais et al, 2004; Wolfinger and Rosenstone, 1980), since better educated and older citizens are what Wattenberg (2002: 80) terms “resource rich”. Studies showing significant correlations between voter turnout and, respectively, class (Clarke et al, 2004), housing tenure (Pattie and Johnston, 1998), income and occupation (Evans, 2003) also lend support to the resource-model of voter participation. However, explaining voter turnout in terms of ‘something about citizens’ can not account for changes in turnout over time: given the socio-demographic trends in mature democracies (wealthier, better-educated citizens), we would anticipate an increase, rather than a decline in turnout (Blais et al, 2004; Evans, 2003; Wattenberg, 2002). Rational choice institutionalisim recognises that voters’ incentives are driven both by electoral rules and by interaction with parties and candidates and stress the strategic consequences of electoral systems, such as party campaigning (or marketing) and direct mobilisation of voters. The link between campaigning and turnout has often been made: Gerber and Green (2000) and Green and Gerber (2004) find that door-to-door canvassing by party activists has a substantial influence on voter turnout in the US. In addition, Pattie et al (1995) demonstrate that increased spending on constituency campaigning in the UK increases turnout for all parties. Significantly, as with the political marketing literature reviewed above, they also find that parties spend the most in marginal seats and the least where they have little hope of winning. Studies of voter turnout encounter several methodological problems. First, several authors have noted the problematic discrepancy between conclusions based on aggregateor individual-level studies (e.g. Aldrich, 1993; Curtice, 2003; Evans, 2003; Franklin, 2004; Pattie and Johnston, 2001). For example, Whiteley et al (2001) analyse constituency-level data and find marginality to be positively related to percentage turnout; specifically, turnout is on average 10% higher in marginal seats. However, because they study aggregaterather than individual-level data, they are unable to tease out whether this phemonenon is due to the voter’s perception that her vote counts more in marginal seats, or the fact that parties campaign harder in such seats, as they recognise. Nevertheless, aggregate-level studies, using national, constituency or cohort-level data remain popular (e.g. Blais and Dobrzynska, 1998; Bowler et al, 2001; Franklin, 2004, respectively), despite the added risk of ecological fallacy. Even studies which avoid ecological fallacy by combining individual and aggregate-level data run into additional methodological problems. Cross-national studies, such as those by Norris (2004) and Siaroff and Meyer (2002), fail to control for country-specific factors that might affect turnout levels, such as the particular issue mix, national incidents, media coverage, or political corruption. As Franklin (2004: 15) points out, comparisons

In this paper, we investigate the influence of the foreign firm, through its interaction with the local partner, on the extent to which international joint ventures (IJVs) acquire knowledge and reach a higher level of performance. Based on the literature, we posit and test the proposition that there is a positive relationship between IJVs’ knowledge acquisition from foreign firms and their performance. To date, very few studies exist on IJVs in Korea, and fewer still examine the relationship between management knowledge acquired from foreign parents and IJVs’ performance. Using a sample of IJVs in Korea, this paper contributes to the literature, firstly by examining and confirming the positive relationship between managerial knowledge acquisition from foreign parents and IJV performance; and secondly, by testing for the extent of foreign firm support, and the relationship between parents with respect to both managerial knowledge acquisition and performance. This study extends knowledge on IJV knowledge acquisition and performance, more specifically in the Korean context.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to consider whether successful subsidised arts organisations are more likely to apply a relationship rather than transactional marketing approach to overcome the tendency of not‐for‐profit organisations generally, and subsidised arts organisations particularly, to use marketing for short‐term, tactical purposes.Design/methodology/approachResearch was undertaken to identify whether “successful” subsidised performing arts organisations were indeed more strategic in their focus, whether they had applied a relationship marketing approach and whether such an approach had been influential in the development of their “success”. Preliminary research led to the production of a conceptual framework that identifies major partnerships and specific stakeholder types that need to be considered by a subsidised performing arts organisation if an effective relationship marketing approach is to be developed. This was used as the basis for subsequent research involving a multiple case study approach studying two “successful” theatres and one “unsuccessful” theatre in depth. The strengths of relationship between the various key stakeholder roles and artistic directors within the three theatres were analysed.FindingsAlthough this research is limited to a case study analysis of three theatres, it does seem to provide evidence to suggest that building strong relationships with stakeholders other than end users can be advantageous to subsidised performing arts organisations.Practical implicationsIt is likely that this approach could be successful for the subsidised arts generally and indeed for all those organisations in the not‐for‐profit sector where those who pay do not necessarily receive the service.Originality/valueThis article provides a discussion on successful subsidised arts organisations.

Purpose – This paper aims to explore ethical purchasing behaviours and attitudes, relating to the Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and their brand‐extension “Freedom Food”.Design/methodology/approach – A mixed methodology was adopted. This involved both in‐depth interviews with 30 consumers and a postal survey of 1,000 consumers. Beliefs, attitudes, normative and control issues were measured within the context of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Structural equation modelling was used to explore a series of dependence relationships simultaneously.Findings – Overall, consumers' moral obligations towards food‐animals as well as consumer location are confirmed as influencing ethical brand choice. Both variables provide additional predictive capability improvements, raising the percentage of explained variance by 28 per cent to 80 per cent. The RSPCA's brand extension is clearly successful in terms of the positive, association value between the parent brand and the extended bran...