This article is the third essay in a series on the historical development of psychological configuration of the self and presents the development of the first types of proto-individualistic psychological configuration that emerged in markedly gregarious contexts from the earliest times of human development, which represent the first examples of psychological configuration of the individualistic self archetype. The first and most elementary types of protoindividualistic configuration that emerged in archaic times are explored, showing the four oldest types of proto-individualism of which there is evidence. The most varied types of proto-individualism that emerged in the post-Neolithic and early civilizations are also explored and discussed, representing transformations or variations of archaic types and other new types of configuration that emerge in the already very diverse contexts of social organization. The main characteristics of the configurations presented are discussed within the framework of the dynamic evolution of the two general archetypes of psychological configuration.

This article is the second essay in a series on the historical development of psychological configurations of the self. It presents the different psychological configurations of the gregarious type of self, which emerged in the early stages of humanity. The article first presents an overview of prehistoric human development and the various difficulties in studying the behavior of early humans. Second, it presents the characteristics of the different psychological configurations of gregarious selves, differentiating between two levels of archaic gregarious self, and the later development of the classical gregarious self. Finally, some basic lines in the configuration of the gregarious archetypes are delimited.

This article presents the idea of articulating the concepts of individualism and gregariousness as two elements in tension in the psychological configuration of human beings, and the historical variations in self-configurations. The essay explores the genesis and evolution of the archetypes of the self developed in the different historical contexts throughout the history of humanity. This analysis connects with the functional and contextual perspective facilitating an inclusive vision of the behavioral repertoires that are articulated through the concepts of individualism, gregariousness, and the self. The main characteristics of the two groups of self-configurations emerged throughout the history of the human being are described: archetypes of gregarious selves, and archetypes of individualistic selves. Differentiating three individualistic archetypes such as romantic self, modernist self, and postmodernist self.

This article presents the idea of articulating the concepts of individualism and gregariousness as two elements in tension in the psychological configuration of human beings, and the historical variations in self-configurations. The essay explores the genesis and evolution of the archetypes of the self developed in the different historical contexts throughout the history of humanity. This analysis connects with the functional and contextual perspective facilitating an inclusive vision of the behavioral repertoires that are articulated through the concepts of individualism, gregariousness, and the self. The main characteristics of the two groups of self-configurations emerged throughout the history of the human being are described: archetypes of gregarious selves, and archetypes of individualistic selves. Differentiating three individualistic archetypes such as romantic self, modernist self, and postmodernist self.

This paper proposes a functional interpretation of psychopathic behavior as an alternative to formal attempts to explain this rare, complex and, dangerous pattern of behaviors. First of all, the contextual-functional approach is briefly summarized. In second place, four well-known historical cases of psychopathy are briefly described and analyzed. Accordingly to a functional approach, the key issues that are emphasized are the contingencies occurring in the personal histories of such individuals as well as the derived transformation of functions that established such rare and dangerous pattern of behavior regulation. A brief analysis is made of the cognitive and emotional characteristics traditionally predicated as exclusive of psychopathy (as lack of empathy, emotional responsiveness, impulsivity, the need of power, etcetera) that sets the stage for an interpretative analysis about the conditions that might be involved in the emergence and expansion of the behaviors typically categorized with the psychopathic label. This analysis focuses on the personal history and describes the confluence of conditions to form thoughts/beliefs about oneself and the others, that establish as dominant reinforcers such as immediate pleasure and escaping aversive funtions as well as power without limits. This analysis might indicate that the exceptionality of psychopathy migth lie on the occurrence of very extreme specific and unusual conditions but in the absence of those conditions that might prevent the building of repertoires as those described in psychopathy. Accordingly this functional-contextual interpretation characterizes psychopaths persons not as having relevant differences in their brains to explain their behavior as well as not having difficulties for the formation of adaptive cognitive functioning and behavior regulation. Conversely, this analysis is focused in unusual and exceptional extreme personal history with conditions to develop some behaviors and not to develop others.

A Reversal Study on the Effects of Change to Filtered Coffee on Serum Cholesterol Levels. Unfiltered coffee consumption has been associated to the increase in serum cholesterol levels. The aim of this population study was to verify if the change in the type of coffee consumed from unfiltered to filtered produces effects on the serum cholesterol levels of the participants. The sample was formed of 30 volunteers (9 men) with no health problems (age range=18-47; average=28.2; SD=8.8). The study was structured according to an A-B-A reversible design with simultaneous replications between subjects. During the Baseline and Reversion phases (A), participants consumed unfiltered coffee in their usual way, while in the Intervention Phase (B) they consumed only filtered coffee. Participants were divided into two subgroups according to their serum level of cholesterol LDL at Baseline Phase (resulting in a subgroup formed by 16 participants with LDL <115 mg/dL, and a subgroup formed by 14 participants with LDL=115 mg/dL). Results indicated that 90% of participants showed decrease in their serum cholesterol LDL level at the end of the Intervention Phase contingent to coffee change with an increase in their serum cholesterol LDL level at the end of the Reversion Phase when they returned to consuming unfiltered coffee. Also a change in serum cholesterol HDL level was shown by 93% of participants, with an increase in serum cholesterol HDL level contingent on the change to filtered coffee and a decrease when they return to consume unfiltered coffee. The implications of these findings and the limitations of the study are discussed.

A Functional-contextual Approach to Psychopathy: Cases Analysis. This paper proposes a functional interpretation of psychopathic behavior as an alternative to formal attempts to explain this rare, complex and, dangerous pattern of behaviors. First of all, the contextual-functional approach is briefly summarized. In second place, four well-known historical cases of psychopathy are briefly described and analyzed. According to a functional approach, the key issues are the contingencies occurring in the personal histories of such individuals as well as the derived transformation of functions that established such rare and dangerous pattern of behavior regulation. A brief analysis is made of the cognitive and emotional characteristics traditionally predicated as exclusive of psychopathy (as lack of empathy, emotional responsiveness, impulsivity, the need of power, etcetera) that sets the stage for an interpretative analysis about the conditions that might be involved in the emergence and expansion of the behaviors typically categorized with the psychopathic label. This analysis focuses on the personal history and describes the confluence of conditions that form thoughts/beliefs about oneself and the others, that establishes as dominant reinforcers obtaining immediate pleasure and escaping aversive funtions as well as feeling unlimited power upon others. This analysis might indicate that the exceptionality of psychopathy migth lie on the occurrence of very extreme specific and unusual conditions and the non-occurrence of those conditions that might prevent the building of repertoires as those described in psychopathy. Therefore, the functional-contextual interpretation characterizes psychopaths persons not as having specific differences in their brains or having difficulties for the formation of adaptive cognitive functioning and behavior regulation, to give account for their psychopatic behavior

In this article the experiment carried out by Takahashi etal. [2009] is replicated to analyze the influence of culture, gender, origin (urban or rural), and socioeconomic level on the impulsivity and consistency of decision-making processes concerning monetary gains and losses. The results indicate that Spanish students show inconsistency, and more impulsivity over gains (i.e., more impatience, as they discount delayed outcomes more rapidly) than do Japanese and American students. Additionally, participants from urban areas show more impatience over gains than do participants from rural ones, women are more impatient than men are over losses, and participants of different socioeconomic levels show differences in their impulsivity parameters.

Smoking Self-quitting is the most commonly used tool for smokers who wish to quit smoking. The aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between habits related to smoking and some personal regulation variables and succesful self-quitting from smoking. 137 participants who had attempted to quit smoking on their own (99 remained abstinent and 38 still smoking) provided information on their smoking history, quit attempts, nicotine dependence, self-control and psychological flexibility. Differences between succesful quiters and smokers who failed in cessation found that age at wich cessation begins (p=.01), and psychological flexibility (p=.001) were related with succesful quiting. In addittion, a logistic regresion model to estimate the influence of all variables on success in quitting showed that flexibility was related to successful self-quiting (p <. 05). These results show evidence that psychological flexibility is associated to successful self-quitting, and suggest that this variable could facilitate success in attempts to stop smoking without professional help. Limitations and implications of this study for smoking treatment are discussed.

The current goal of treatment in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) focuses primarily on symptom management and attempts to improve quality of life. Several treatments are at the disposal of physicians; lifestyle and dietary management, pharmacological treatments and psychological interventions are the most used and recommended. Psychological treatments have been proposed as viable alternatives or compliments to existing care models. Most forms of psychological therapies studied have been shown to be helpful in reducing symptoms and in improving the psychological component of anxiety/depression and health-related quality of life. According to current NICE/NHS guidelines, physicians should consider referral for psychological treatment in patients who do not respond to pharmacotherapy for a period of 12 months and develop a continuing symptom profile (described as refractory irritable bowel syndrome). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the best studied treatment and seems to be the most promising therapeutic approach. However, some studies have challenged the effectiveness of this therapy for irritable bowel syndrome. One study concluded that cognitive behavioral therapy is no more effective than placebo attention control condition and another study showed that the beneficial effects wane after six months of follow-up. A review of mind/body approaches to irritable bowel syndrome has therefore suggested that alternate strategies targeting mechanisms other than thought content change might be helpful, specifically mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches. In this article we review these new psychological treatment approaches in an attempt to raise awareness of alternative treatments to gastroenterologists that treat this clinical syndrome.

Se pretende realizar con el presente estudio, un análisis exploratorio de variables que puedan ayudar a explicar el éxito o fracaso en cesación tabáquica mediante autoabandono. El presente estudio obtuvo el informe favorable de la Comisión de Bioética de la Universidad de Almería, cuyo número de referencia es UALBIO2011/025. Los participantes del estudio se consiguieron mediante anuncios en prensa y radio y centros de salud, se les realizó una entrevista dirigida al registro de distintas variables relacionadas con el consumo de tabaco, edad de inicio, edad de abandono, años de uso del tabaco, número de cigarrillos al día y dependencia nicotínica

Con el termino autoabandono (self-quitting) se hace referencia al cese en el consumo de tabaco sin ningun tipo de ayuda profesional. Es decir, fumadores que inician el cese con sus propios medios, o con algun tipo de materia de orientacion minima, convirtiendose en los principales agentes del abandono del consumo de tabaco (Roales-Nieto, Moreno San Pedro, Cordoba Garcia, Marin Romero, Jimenez Lopez, Gil Luciano, Silvano Arranz, Fernandez Lao, Granados Gamez y Hernandez Lopez, 2016). El autoabandono como procedimiento para dejar de fumar ha sido estudiado por numerosos autores (por ejemplo, Fiore, Novotny, Pierce, Giovino, Hatziandreu, Newcomb, Surawicz y Davis, 1990; Hughes, Gulliver, Fenwicj, Valliere, Cruser, Pepper, Shea, Solomon y Flynn, 1992; Lennox y Taylor, 1994; Lichtenstein y Cohen, 1990, Mikkelsen, Dalum, Skov-Ettrup y Tolstrup, 2015; Smith, Carter, Dunlop y Freeman y Chapman, 2015) y esta mas en consonancia con la idea de algunos autores que enfatizan la influencia de variables conductuales en el abandono del consumo de tabaco mas que de las propiedades adictivas de la nicotina (Cummings, Brown y Douglas, 2006).Las cifras de exito mediante autoabandono han dado lugar a opiniones muy dispares. Por ejemplo, Edwars, Bondy, Callaghan y Mann (2014) han senalado que el 90% de unos 37.000.000 fumadores que optaron por el autoabandono entre los anos 1976 y 1985 en USA lograron la abstinencia. Otros estudios (Cohen, Lichtenstein, Prochaska, Rossi, Gritz, Carr, Orleans, Schoenbach, Biener, Abrams, DiClemente, Curry, Marlatt, Cummings, Emont, Giovino y Ossip-Klein, 1989; Schachter, 1990) han senalado que el 95% de los fumadores que cesaron en el consumo de tabaco lo hicieron mediante autoabandono sin necesidad de recurrir a ningun servicio o profesional; Hung, Dunlop, Perez y Cotter (2011) han rebajado esas cifras de exito al 66% de los que lo intentan por si mismos, y Smith, Chapman y Dunlop (2015) mantienen cifras de exito en el abandono que oscilan entre el 54% y el 69%. En cambio, otros estudios han indicado cifras de exito mediante el autoabandono mas modestas. Por ejemplo, Gritz, Carr y Marcus (1988) senalaron una tasa de exito del 11% al ano del intento de abandono; Lichtenstein y Cohen (1990) llegaron incluso a senalar que solo el 0,5% de los que usan el autoabandono como metodo de cesacion tabaquica tienen exito, mientras que Doran, Valenti, Robinson, Britt y Mattick, 2006 senalaron que, si bien la tasa inicial de exito en autoabandono suele ser elevada, disminuye un 40% al ano de iniciado el intento.No obstante, y a pesar de sus posibles limitaciones, al igual que ocurre con otras sustancias adictivas, el autoabandono es la via preferida de intento de abandono informada por la mayoria de quienes manifiestan querer cesar en el consumo de tabaco (por ejemplo, Carballo, Fernandez-Hermida, Sobell, Dum, Secades Villa, Garcia Rodriguez, Errasti Perez y Alhalabi Diaz, 2008; Chapman, 1985; Morphett, Partidge, Gartner, Carter y Hall, 2015). A pesar de lo cual, su estudio es objeto de escaso interes entre los investigadores especializados en el abandono del tabaquismo, obviando las posibilidades que su mejor conocimiento arrojaria de cara a la mejora de la salud publica.Algunos estudios han explorado las razones manifestadas por los fumadores para no usar los servicios de tratamiento profesional del tabaquismo, indicando como principales razones la eficacia, el coste economico y la desconfianza hacia los tratamientos profesionales (por ejemplo, Gross, Brose, Schumann, Ulbricht, Meyer, Volzke y John, 2008; Smith, Carter, Chapman, Dunlop y Freeman, 2015). A las razones anteriores Morphett et al. (2015) han anadido razones como que el autoabandono sea una estrategia dependiente del fumador, y que quienes se inclinan por este metodo consideran que la fuerza de voluntad y una elevada motivacion son las garantias del exito en el abandono. Otros estudios han limitado su importancia, senalando que el autoabandono es usado, preferentemente, por fumadores jovenes y con un elevado nivel educativo (Hung et al. …

Smoking Self-quitting and Psychological Flexibility. The prevalence of smoking in the general population remains high in spite of the extended acknowledgement of the well-documented health consequences of smoking and potential benefits of quitting. Only a minority of smokers who attempt to quit seeks professional treatment, yet most of the research on smoking cessation focuses on such form of quitting. Research on self-quitting is scarce, although most smokers who successfully quit, do so on their own. Recently, research has evidenced that psychological flexibility, a core concept in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, is an important variable in predicting successful behavioral change in many clinically relevant areas. The goal of this study was to analyze the relationship between psychological flexibility and successful self-quitting from smoking. 277 participants who had attempted to quit on their own (217 successfully abstinent and 60 still smoking) provided information on their smoking history, quit attempts, nicotine dependence, and demographics, and were assessed with the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II. Abstinence status was measured through self-reports of continuous abstinence and confirmed by concentrations of expired carbon monoxide below 8 ppm. Results show a statistically significant difference ( t= -8,775; p <.01) for the AAQ-II scores of successful (M= 18.39, SD= 7.76) and unsuccessful self-quitters (M= 27.17; SD= 6.88). Only 26% participants with high level of psychological inflexibility quitted successfully, compared to 94% participants with low levels of psychological inflexibility. These results show clear evidence that psychological flexibility is associated to successful self-quitting, and suggest that this variable could facilitate success in attempts to stop smoking without professional help. Implications and limitations of this study are discussed.

Este estudio explora las diferencias asociadas con la edad en variables relacionadas con la infelicidad (infelicidad autoinformada) y satisfacción con la vida. Participan 2143 personas pertenecientes a cuatro grupos de edad: jóvenes, adultos, mayores y ancianos. Los resultados revelan que las personas mayores presentan un mayor nivel de satisfacción con la vida que los jóvenes, así como una mayor puntuación que estos en felicidad percibida. Los resultados contradicen las hipótesis de la relación entre desarrollo y felicidad, que vinculan prosperidad material y satisfacción vital; los datos aportados, en cambio, muestran a una población joven más infeliz que las más ancianas.

Background: Many studies have explored personal values in nursing, but none has assessed whether the predictions made by the theory of intergenerational value change are true for the different generations of nursing professionals and students. This theory predicts a shift in those personal values held by younger generations towards ones focussed on self-expression. Research question: The purpose of the study was to identify intergenerational differences in personal values among nursing professionals and nursing students and to determine whether generational value profiles fit the predictions made by the theory. Research design: An exploratory comparative design with a cross-sectional survey method was used. Participants and research context: Participants were recruited from four public hospitals and 10 Primary Care Centres in medium-size cities in Spain. A sample of 589 nurses and 2295 nursing students participated in the study. An open survey method was used to collect data that were classified grouping reported values into categories following a method of value lexicon construction and analysed by contingency tables with Pearson’s χ 2 and standardized residuals. Ethical considerations: Approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Deans of the nursing schools and the Directors of Nursing of the institutions. Anonymity was guaranteed, participation was voluntary and participants were informed of the purpose of the study. Findings: The results can be synthesized in two age-related trends in the reporting of values among three groups of participants. First, among younger nurses and students, some nursing core values (e.g. ethical and professional) decreased in importance, while other values centred on social relationships and personal well-being increased. Discussion and Conclusion: This study shows intergenerational change in personal values among both nursing students and young nursing professionals. Findings suggest the need to pay more attention to value training and professional socialization during the schooling period.

This study explores the differences in unhappiness (self-reported unhappiness) and life satisfaction variables associated with age. A total of 2143 people from four age groups took part in the investigation: youth, adults, seniors and elderly people. Results reveal that seniors have a higher level of satisfaction with life and perceived happiness than young people. The results contradict the hypothesis of the relationship between development and happiness that associate material prosperity and life satisfaction; the data provided, however, show a young population that is unhappier than the older population.

The study explores the generational contrast between personal values in students and nurses and their adjustment to the predictions of the theory of changing values. The sample was comprised of 369 students and nurses who were divided into three groups: students (n = 150), nurses under age 40 (n = 114), and nurses between 41 and 60 years of age (n = 105). The participants reported their values on an open questionnaire, in order of priority. The reports were organized into value categories to analyze the differences between groups. Two trends were found in the report on personal values: in some cases, they fit what is predicted by the theory of changing values; in others, they contradict it. The importance of these findings and the need to empower training oriented towards the values of the nursing profession is discussed. The study contributes to what we know about the change in personal values among nursing professionals.

El estudio explora el contraste intergeneracional entre valores personales en estudiantes y profesionales de enfermería y su ajuste a las predicciones de la teoría del cambio de valores. La muestra estuvo formada por 369 estudiantes y profesionales de enfermería distribuidos en tres grupos: estudiantes (n = 150), profesionales menores de 40 años (n = 114), y profesionales entre 41 y 60 años (n = 105). Los participantes informaron de sus valores en orden de prioridad en un cuestionario abierto. Los informes se organizaron en categorías de valores para analizar las diferencias entre grupos. Se encuentran dos tendencias en el informe de valores personales, que se ajustan en algunos casos a lo predicho por la teoría del cambio de valores y, en otros casos, la contradicen. Se discute la importancia de estos hallazgos y la necesidad de potenciar una formación orientada hacia los valores de la profesión de enfermería. El estudio contribuye al conocimiento del cambio de valores personales en profesionales de enfermería.

A longitudinal study was conducted to assess the presence of beliefs about symptoms related to hypertension and the time since diagnosis in which they appear. A randomly selected sample of hypertensive patients (67% women, mean age 53.27 years and range 2065) was divided into four groups according to the time from diagnosis. All patients (N=171) were interviewed at the beginning (initial assessment) and 12 months later (final assessment) and the patients (n=75) who did not report beliefs about symptoms at the initial assessment were interviewed in a follow-up schedule. The results showed that 56% of patients reported beliefs about symptoms at the initial assessment, and this percentage increased to 77% at the final assessment (p < .001) finding significant differences between the two groups with a more recent diagnosis and the two groups of long-standing patients. Longitudinal analysis of the group with the recent diagnosis showed that the critical period for the emergence of beliefs was the first year from diagnosis. This period could be decisive in order to prevent them. Healthcare professionals should pay attention to the emergence of these beliefs, as they could negatively affect treatment adherence. (C) 2015 Asociacion Espanola de Psicologia Conductuat. Published by Elsevier Espana, S.L.U. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).