We found evidence that Army cadets improved their gaze behavior and performance across time under high and low pressure in a shooting task. The purpose of the study was to determine if male and female cadets developed an optimal quiet eye (QE) onset, a longer QE duration, and decreased pupil diameter variability (PDV) over time under low (LP) and high pressure (HP) conditions. The study was carried out over four sessions, with intervals of 4.5 months. During each session, 16 men and 12 women, first-year cadets of The Brazilian Army Academy, performed ten pistol shots under counterbalanced LP and HP conditions. The cadets shot in the upright position and wore an eye-tracker. Shooting accuracy improved and did not differ for men and women in the LP condition, however during HP the women performed more poorly than the men in session 1 but improved to a level similar to the men in session 4. QE duration Pre (aiming) did not differ during LP, while during HP QE Post (execution) increased across the session for men and women. QE onset 2 (execution) occurred earlier for the men than women during LP, while during HP the women improved to a level similar to the men in sessions 3 and 4. PDV declined across sessions for men and women with the lowest values in sessions 3 and 4. The findings are discussed within social facilitation theory, which states the context of training affects the rate at which improvements in motor skills occur. The results show that women cadets can improve their shooting performance, quiet eye duration, quiet eye onset and pupil diameter variability to a level similar to men if three to four LP and HP training sessions are scheduled across approximately 12-18 months.

Introduction:The ability to perform optimally under pressure is critical across many occupations, including the military, first responders, and competitive sport. Despite recognition that such performance depends on a range of cognitive factors, how common these factors are across performance domains remains unclear. The current study sought to integrate existing knowledge in the performance field in the form of a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie performance under pressure.Methods:International experts were recruited from four performance domains [(i) Defense; (ii) Competitive Sport; (iii) Civilian High-stakes; and (iv) Performance Neuroscience]. Experts rated constructs from the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework (and several expert-suggested constructs) across successive rounds, until all constructs reached consensus for inclusion or were eliminated. Finally, included constructs were ranked for their relative importance.Results:Sixty-eight experts completed the first Delphi round, with 94% of experts retained by the end of the Delphi process. The following 10 constructs reached consensus across all four panels (in order of overall ranking): (1) Attention; (2) Cognitive Control-Performance Monitoring; (3) Arousal and Regulatory Systems-Arousal; (4) Cognitive Control-Goal Selection, Updating, Representation, and Maintenance; (5) Cognitive Control-Response Selection and Inhibition/Suppression; (6) Working memory-Flexible Updating; (7) Working memory-Active Maintenance; (8) Perception and Understanding of Self-Self-knowledge; (9) Working memory-Interference Control, and (10) Expert-suggested-Shifting.Discussion:Our results identify a set of transdisciplinary neuroscience-informed constructs, validated through expert consensus. This expert consensus is critical to standardizing cognitive assessment and informing mechanism-targeted interventions in the broader field of human performance optimization.

A case study is presented of a professional golfer (AB) who in her 13th LPGA season suffered from the psychological form of the YIPS. She had increased anxiety about her technique and eye movements that made focusing difficult. After a quiet eye (QE) training program she overcame the YIPS and had her 2nd best season. However, her improvement was temporary for reasons that may have been due to how the treatment was delivered. Due to the pandemic, she was given a QE training program that used email, phone calls, videos showing the quiet eye of elite golfers, counseling, and research papers. Her QE and coupled stroke kinematics were not recorded, as normally occurs, thus the paper concludes with suggestions for a QE training program that may lead to permanent improvements in golf or other sports where this stressful disorder occurs.

This paper reveals new insights that comes from comparing quiet eye (QE) studies within the motor accuracy and motor error paradigms. Motor accuracy is defined by the rules of the sport (e.g,. hits versus misses), while motor error is defined by a behavioral measure, such as how far a ball or other object lands from the target (e.g. radial error). The QE motor accuracy paradigm treats accuracy as an independent variable and determines the QE duration during an equal (or near-equal) number of hits and misses per condition per participant, while the motor error QE paradigm combines hits and misses into one data set and determines the correlation between the QE and motor error, which is used as a proxy for accuracy. QE studies within the motor accuracy paradigm consistently find a longer QE duration is a characteristic of skill, and/or interaction of skill by accuracy. In contrast, QE motor error studies do not analyze or report the relationship between the QE duration and accuracy (although often claimed), and rarely find a significant correlation between the QE duration and error. Evidence is provided showing the absence of significant results in QE motor error studies is due to the low number of accurate trials found in motor error studies due to the inherent complexity of all sport skills. Novices in targeting skills make fewer than 20% of their shots and experts less than 40% (with some exceptions) creating imbalanced data sets that make it difficult, if not impossible, to find significant QE results (or any other neural, perceptual or cognitive variable) related to motor accuracy in sport.

We investigated three areas of uncertainty about the role of vision in basketball shooting, the timing of fixations (early, late), the location of fixations (hoop centre, non-centre) and the effect of the defender on performance. We also sought to overcome a limitation of past quiet eye studies that reported only one quiet eye (QE) period prior to a phase of the action. Elite basketball players received the pass and took three-point shots in undefended and defended conditions. Five sequential QE periods were analyzed that were initiated prior to each phase of the shooting action: QE catch, QE arm preparation, QE arm flexion, QE arm extension, and QE ball release. We used a novel design in which the number of hits and misses were held constant by condition, thus leaving the timing and location of QE fixations free to vary across the phases during an equal number of successful and unsuccessful trials. The number of QE fixations accounted for 87% of total fixations. The greatest percent occurred during QE catch (43.6%), followed by QE arm flexion (34.1%), QE arm extension (17.5%) and QE ball release (4.8%). No fixations were found prior to QE arm preparation, due to a saccade made immediately to the target after QE catch. Fixation frequency averaged 2.20 per trial, and 1.25 during the final shooting action, meaning that most participants had time for only one fixation as the shot was taken. Accuracy was enhanced when: (1) an early QE offset occurred prior to the catch, (2) an early saccade was made to the target, (3) a longer QE duration occurred during arm flexion, and (4) QE arm flexion was located on the centre of the hoop, rather than on non-centre locations. Overall, the results provide evidence that vision of the hoop was severely limited during the last phase of the shooting action (QE ball release). The significance of the results is explored in the discussion, along with a QE training program designed to improve three-point shooting. Overall, the results greatly expand the role of the QE in explaining optimal motor performance.

University students (N = 240) were randomly assigned to a quiet eye training (QET) or technical training (TT) group, and their shooting accuracy (%) determined during a pre-, post-, and transfer test in basketball field shooting. Both groups first received lectures on visuomotor processing and the quiet eye (QE), followed by a laboratory in which participants in the QET group were taught how to adopt the QE characteristics of elite free-throw shooters, which stresses optimal gaze control and focus relative to a single target location, while the TT participants were taught elite biomechanics which stresses optimal control of the shooting stance, arms, and hands. Overall, the QET group's accuracy was significantly higher than the TT group, but differences were found due to skill level and defensive pressure. From pre to post, the accuracy of the QET novices increased significantly compared to the TT novices, but declined during transfer. Both the QET and TT intermediates had relatively high accuracy scores during the pre- and posttests, which then declined, as expected, during the transfer test against defensive pressure. However, during transfer the QET group's accuracy remained higher than the TT group and was surprisingly similar to that found in elite competition. It is recommended that novice and intermediate basketball players be taught how to adopt the QE of elite players, rather than learning only the technical/mechanical aspects of shooting. Theoretically, the study is placed within the context of top-down "cognitive control," as proposed by Cavanagh and Frank (2014), and QET studies which show that when learners are taught how to adopt the QE of elite performers, this appears to contribute to a more optimal organization of the neural networks underlying control of the task which, in turn, leads to improved shooting performance.

Abstract Considerable debate has arisen about whether brain activity in elite athletes is characterized by an overall quieting, or neural efficiency in brain processes, or whether elite performance is characterized by activation of two simultaneous networks. One network exercises cognitive control using increased theta activation of premotor and cingulate gyrus, whereas the second reduces alpha activation in an inhibitory network that prevents the intrusion of debilitating thoughts emanating from the temporal lobe and other areas. Also, there is controversy about how a long-duration “quiet eye” (QE) can fit within a single efficient neural system, or whether a dual system where both increased cognitive control and reduced inhibitory processes has advantages. The literature on neural efficiency, the QE, and theta cognitive control, suggest that a long-duration QE promotes both an increase in theta band activation of the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate and reduced activation and inhibition of the temporal regions during high-pressure situations when a high level of focused, cognitive control is essential.

The aim of this study was to integrate a gaze training intervention (i.e., quiet eye training; QET) that has been shown to improve the throwing and catching skill of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), within an approach (i.e., group therapy) that might alleviate the negative psychosocial impact of these motor skill deficits. Twenty-one children with DCD were split into either QET (8 male 3 female, mean age of 8.6 years (SD = 1.04) or technical training (TT) groups (7 male 3 female, mean age of 8.6 years (SD = 1.84). The TT group were given movement-related instructions via video, relating to the throw and catch phases, while the QET group were also taught to fixate a target location on the wall prior to the throw (QE1) and to track the ball prior to the catch (QE2). Each group partook in a 4-week, group therapy intervention and measurements of QE duration and catching performance were taken before and after training, and at a 6-week delayed retention test. Parental feedback on psychosocial and motor skill outcomes was provided at delayed retention. Children improved their gaze control and catching coordination following QET, compared to TT. Mediation analysis showed that a longer QE aiming duration (QE1) predicted an earlier onset of tracking the ball prior to catching (QE2) which predicted catching success. Parents reported enhanced perceptions of their child's catching ability and general coordination in the QET group compared to the TT group. All parents reported improvements in their child's confidence, social skills and predilection for physical activity following the trial. The findings offer initial support for an intervention that practitioners could apply to address deficits in the motor and psychosocial skills of children with DCD.TRIAL REGISTRATION:ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02904980.

In interceptive timing tasks, long quiet eye (QE) durations at the release point, along with early tracking on the object, allow performers to couple their actions to the kinematics of their opponent and regulate their movements based on emergent information from the object's trajectory. We used a mobile eye tracker to record the QE of eight university-level ice hockey goaltenders of an equivalent skill level as they responded to shots that deflected off a board placed to their left or right, resulting in a trajectory with low predictability. QE behaviour was assessed using logistic regression and magnitude-based inference. We found that when QE onset occurred later in the shot (950 +/- 580ms, mean +/- SD) there was an increase in the proportion of goals allowed (41% vs. 22%) compared to when QE onset occurred earlier. A shorter QE duration (1260 +/- 630ms) predicted a large increase in the proportion of goals scored (38% vs. 14%). More saves occurred when QE duration (2074 +/- 47ms) was longer. An earlier QE offset (2004 +/- 66ms) also resulted in a large increase in the number of goals allowed (37% vs. 11%) compared to a later offset (2132 +/- 41ms). Since an early, sustained QE duration contributed to a higher percentage of saves, it is important that coaches develop practice activities that challenge the goaltender's ability to fixate the puck early, as well as sustain a long QE fixation on the puck until after it is released from the stick.

A "look-up line" (LUL) has been proposed for ice hockey, which is an orange 1 m (40') warning line (WL) painted on the ice at the base of the boards. The LUL purports to provide an early warning to players to keep their head up prior to and as they are being checked. We determined if players looked up more on a rink with the LUL compared to a traditional Control rink. Elite offensive (O) and defensive (D) players competed 1 vs. 1, while wearing an eye tracker that recorded their quiet eye (QE) and fixation and tracking (F-T) and an electrogoniometer that measured head angle. External cameras recorded skate duration during four skate phases: P1 preparation, P2 decision-making, P3 cut to boards, P4 contact. The QE was the final fixation prior to contact between O and D as they skated towards and across the WL during P3 and P4. Skate phase durations (%) did not differ by rink or rink by position. More QE and F-T occurred on the WL on the LUL rink than on the Control. The expected increase in head angle on the LUL rink did not occur during P3 or P4. Post-hoc results also showed O and D skated further from the boards on the LUL rink, suggesting the players preferred to control the puck on white ice, rather than the orange colour of the LUL rink. More research is needed to determine if these results apply to the competitive setting.

All sports require precise control of physical actions and vision is essential in providing the information the movement systems needs to perform at a high level. Vision and focus of attention play a critically important role as the ability to direct the gaze to optimal areas in the playing environment, at the appropriate time, is central to success in all sports. One variable that has been consistently found to discriminate elite performers from their near-elite and novice counterparts is the Quiet Eye (QE). In the present paper, I first define the QE, followed by an explanation of its origins as well as the question: why have I pursued this one variable for over 35 years? I then provide a brief overview of QE research, and concentrate on QE training, which has emerged as an effective method for improving both attentional focus and motor performance. In the final section, I discuss some future directions, in particular those related to identifying the neural networks underlying the QE during successful trials.

Introduction: Quiet eye training (QET) has been shown to be more effective than traditional training (TT) methods for teaching a throw and catch task to typically developing 8-10 yr old children. The current study aimed to apply the technique to children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD).Method: 30 children with DCD were randomly allocated into or QET intervention groups. The TT group were taught how to control their arm movements during the throw and catch phases, while the QET group were also taught to fixate a target location on the wall prior to the throw (quiet eye I; QE1), followed by tracking the ball prior to the catch (quiet eye2; QE2). Performance, gaze and motion analysis data were collected at pre/post-training and 6-week retention.Results: The QET group significantly increased QE durations from pre-training to delayed retention (QE1 = +247 ms, QE2 = +19%) whereas the TT group experienced a reduction (QE1 = -74 ms, QE2 = -4%). QET participants showed significant improvement in the quality of their catch attempts and increased elbow flexion at catch compared to the TT group (QET = -28 degrees, TT = -1 degrees).Conclusion: QET changed DCD children's ability to focus on a target on the wall prior to the throw, followed by better anticipation and pursuit tracking on the ball, which in turn led to improved catching technique. QET may be an effective adjunct to traditional instructions, for therapists teaching visuomotor skills to children with DCD. Crown Copyright (C) 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We determined the quiet eye (QE) duration, hand movement times (MT) and performance of expert surgeons and novices while they tied one-handed surgical knots. Knot tying is a skill that all surgeons must master, but little is known about the perceptual and cognitive skills needed to perform this critical skill. A long duration QE has been shown to reliably distinguish elite athletes from non-elite and novices, as well as successful from unsuccessful performance. Elite athletes have longer duration of QE on a critical task location prior to performing a final movement. Seven surgeons and five novices tied one-handed square knots while wearing a light mobile eye tracker that simultaneously recorded their gaze and hand movements. Dependent variables were knot tying performance, knot tying duration, hand MT, fixation location, and QE duration. The experts were rated higher than novices in performance, and had faster MTs. Experts allocated 77.9% of their fixations within three degrees (foveal vision) of the knot location and had a significantly longer QE duration placement location on the first throw. In contrast, Novices allocated 49.2% of their fixations within three degrees of the knot location, had a lower QE duration on the first throw, and allocated 50.8% of their fixations to their hands, sutures and surrounding tissue, thus increasing the likelihood of a weaker foundation for the complete knot. Novices first learning to tie knots should be made aware of the importance of a long duration QE on the placement location of the first throw, and be encouraged to reduce the number of fixations on the movement of their hands and the sutures.