OBJECTIVE:Although compulsive buying-shopping disorder (CBSD) has over 100 years of clinical history, its nosology remains a topic of debate. In 2021, Müller and colleagues published a set of diagnostic criteria for the disorder based on a Delphi consensus study. The present study evaluated these criteria among 51 participants who reported a lived experience of CBSD and examined whether their experiences aligned with the components model of addiction. METHOD:Participants were interviewed using a semistructured interview. Transcripts were analyzed using directed content analysis. RESULTS:Most participants reported a persistent and excessive pattern of buying/shopping, diminished control over buying/shopping, buying/shopping for mood modification, experiencing clinically significant distress and impairment, and continuation despite negative consequences. We recommend these symptoms be considered essential features of CBSD, along with ruling out other explanations for the buying/shopping behavior. Intrusive thoughts and preoccupation with buying/shopping, tolerance, and withdrawal were less common, and we recommend these be considered additional, but not required, features of CBSD. CONCLUSIONS:Given these findings and evidence that tolerance and withdrawal are not necessary or sufficient components of addiction, we recommend that CBSD be considered a behavioral addiction. Future research should use these empirically informed criteria to develop and validate a structured diagnostic interview to be used in field studies to formally recognize CBSD as a mental disorder. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to nonhuman entities or objects is known as anthropomorphism. Research on anthropomorphism has been limited by abstract measures that may be difficult for both children and adults to understand. To address this issue, we developed and tested the reliability and validity of the Specific Object Anthropomorphism Scale (SOAS) across three studies involving child and adult participants. The SOAS consists of six items that ask respondents to rate the extent to which a specific object possesses anthropomorphic qualities using simple, concrete statements. Study 1 found that the measure fit a one-factor solution in adults (aged 17-72, M = 32.3). In Study 2, we confirmed the unidimensional structure in adults (aged 18-73, M = 32.2) and demonstrated excellent test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and divergent validity. Study 3 confirmed the unidimensional structure in children (aged 5-12, M = 8.3) and showed that the items were highly understandable. Taken together, these findings indicate that the SOAS is a promising measure of anthropomorphic tendencies that may be easier for both children and adults to complete, potentially leading to a better understanding of the nature of anthropomorphism.

The majority of research in the compulsive buying literature has used the Compulsive Buying Scale, a self-report questionnaire developed by Faber and O'Guinn (Journal of Consumer Research,19(3), 459-469, 1992). Although this scale has previously shown good psychometric properties, it is now over 30 years old and researchers have critiqued whether some items in the scale are still relevant to the current clinical picture of compulsive buying. The aim of this study was to re-investigate its psychometric properties with an item-level psychometric analysis, while also using differential item functioning to test whether items were biased toward demographic groups (i.e., gender, age). We conducted item response theory analyses on the Compulsive Buying Scale in a Canadian sample recruited through Prolific (N = 927) and tested whether there were differences in responding among men versus women, and younger versus older people. We found evidence for differential item functioning for items 2, 3, 5, and 7. The most pronounced effect was in item 5 (bought something to feel better), in which women endorsed this item more overall and had to score higher than men to indicate the same severity of compulsive buying. This suggests that the Compulsive Buying Scale may be biased in its measurement. We conclude with recommendations for developing new measures to accurately assess compulsive buying problems.

Hoarding Disorder (HD) is marked by the inability to discard possessions, and often excessive acquiring, which results in cluttered living spaces that substantially disrupt daily life. While the Saving Inventory-Revised (SI-R) serves as a reliable and valid tool for assessing hoarding severity, its length may preclude routine use. We aimed to develop a valid shorter version of the scale using Item Response Theory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis in a non-selected sample of 2890 individuals and a clinical HD sample of 200 participants, which were divided into test and confirmatory samples in a 2:1 ratio. This led to a 9-item SI-R9, containing the original three subscales of discarding, clutter and acquiring; and an ultra-brief 3-item scale, the SI-R3. The original and revised versions demonstrated construct, convergent, and divergent validity. Significant gender differential was noted on some items, particularly those from the full SI-R, but was small in nature. Clinical cut-offs for all three scales showed good sensitivity and specificity. In conclusion, the SI-R3 and SI-R9 were successfully developed from the original scale, we hope that clinicians and researchers will benefit from reduced administration time, improved compliance, and more cost-effectiveness, and this will lead to greater use in clinical and research settings.

Numerous consumers engage in wasteful and unsustainable consumption despite knowing it is associated with several personal, social, economic, and environmental harms. To aid consumers in reducing consumption, we created Breaking up with Belongings (BB), a fully automated web-based intervention with a downloadable workbook. Eligible participants were recruited using social media ads. They were Australian residents, aged 18 or older, fluent in English, had consistent computer and internet access, and reported having excess possessions and/or having difficulty making intentional decisions about possessions. We assessed the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of this intervention compared to a waitlist (WL) control in a 3-month, parallel, two-arm pilot randomized controlled trial. Over three weeks, 171 individuals screened for this study; 96 were eligible and randomized to condition (48 BB group, 48 WL group). Three-quarters of participants provided follow-up data and accessed the program. The BB group found the program acceptable and outperformed the WL group on two primary outcomes (cautious shopping and clutter removal) and on all secondary outcomes (impulsive buying, expenditure, hoarding tendencies, clutter-related impairment, object attachment, and emotion regulation). These findings will be used to enhance the program’s effectiveness and broader applicability, which will be tested through a larger randomized controlled trial.

Our consumer-driven culture has negative impacts for individuals who are vulnerable to clinical hoarding and compulsive shopping. Because of this, there is an ever-present need to have standardized tools to assess why we acquire and save things we might not need. In this article, we present the development of the Acquiring Motives Questionnaire (AMQ) and Saving Motives Questionnaire (SMQ), which were written based on a thorough literature review and consultation with 22 experts in the field. After piloting with two large nonclinical samples, we administered the measures to another large nonclinical sample (N = 535; Mage = 24.4, 74.2% female, 54.6% White) and then a community sample of individuals with hoarding disorder and/or compulsive buying-shopping disorder and controls without any mental health diagnoses (N = 159; Mage = 42.54, 85.5% female, 59.7% White). Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 14-factor model for the AMQ and a 14-factor model for the SMQ. All subscales demonstrated good internal consistency (ω = 0.81-0.96), 2-week test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.67-0.83), and convergent, divergent, and criterion validity. The measures also distinguished between controls and individuals with hoarding and/or compulsive buying diagnoses. Findings highlight that acquiring and saving behaviors are both motivated by the pursuit of positive emotions and the avoidance of negative emotions, which is consistent with our theoretical understanding of these clinical issues. Based on our findings, we make suggestions for psychological interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Abstract Background and aims Object attachment is the emotional bond or connection that we have with possessions. Although thought to be ubiquitous, when excessive, object attachment is presumed to contribute to compulsive buying and hoarding problems. Unfortunately, our understanding of this relationship has been limited by the constraints of existing object attachment measures. In this paper, we developed and validated a new self-report questionnaire, called the Object Attachment Security Measure (OASM). Methods We developed an item pool based on previous measures and consultation with 24 experts in the field. After piloting, we administered this measure to a large sample (Final N = 365), along with self-report measures of hoarding, compulsive buying, and previous object attachment measures. Results We found that the OASM distinguished between secure and insecure object attachment. Both subscales showed excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability over a two-week period. Additionally, they demonstrated excellent convergent and divergent validity, and criterion validity with measures of hoarding and compulsive buying symptoms. We also found that insecure, but not secure object attachment, was uniquely related to hoarding and compulsive buying symptomology. Discussion and conclusion Our findings extend theoretical models, highlighting the role of insecure object attachment. Future research in both clinical and consumer behaviour fields should utilise the OASM, as reducing insecure object attachment and potentially encouraging secure object attachment could decrease maladaptive possession use and increase sustainable consumption.

Treatment non-response, drop-out, and relapse have led researchers to examine if issues related to the “self” contribute to obsessive-compulsive disorder. The present systematic review investigated whether self-beliefs relate to obsessive-compulsive symptoms and related phenomena, and if these beliefs contribute to the concealment of personal and symptom-relevant information. Ninety-nine papers (103 studies; cumulative N = 21,701) met inclusion criteria. Self was broadly conceptualized, including self-esteem (n = 18 studies), self-concept (n = 5), self-perception (n = 2), negative self-statements (n = 2), self-ambivalence and self-concept clarity (n = 8), feared self (n = 13), self in autogenous and reactive obsessions (n = 4), self-worth (n = 8), sensitivity of self (n = 2), moral self-perceptions (n = 4), early maladaptive schemas (n = 5), egodystonicity and egosyntonicity (n = 10), self-concealment (n = 1), self-disclosure (n = 1), and symptom concealment (n = 20). Overall, while the more general experience of low self-esteem does not appear to differentiate OCD from other psychiatric conditions, self-beliefs encompassing particular egodystonic themes tend to accompany related obsessional concerns or compulsive behaviors. There is consistent evidence that a perceived morally deficient, fractured or feared self plays a role in these phenomena. Owing to methodological constraints of the included studies, the specific function of concealment behaviors in OCD is less clear. The present findings add to growing evidence suggesting the importance of understanding the idiosyncratic nature of self-beliefs in clinical presentations. Future studies should aim to clarify the conceptual overlap across the self-themes examined in this review, and the importance of self-themes for psychological treatments.

Excessive attachment towards possessions can be maladaptive because it can lead individuals to excessively acquire and save objects. Little is known about how attachment to objects develops and changes over time; however, interpersonal factors have been theorized to play a role. The current study examined whether interpersonal factors, specifically interpersonal attachment style and empathy, moderate changes in object attachment over time. A total of 145 participants with excessive acquiring and discarding difficulties rated their level of attachment to a novel object just after receiving it, and 1 week later. Participants also completed measures of interpersonal anxious attachment and interpersonal functioning. We found that changes in object attachment over time were moderated by interpersonal anxious attachment. Also, our findings suggested that individuals with hoarding problems are likely not impaired in their ability to empathize with others, but rather have difficulty displaying empathy in tense social situations and also have more empathy for fictional characters. Further, greater discomfort in tense social situations and greater empathy for fictional characters interacted to predict greater object attachment. Taken together, these findings indicate that individuals with an interpersonal anxious attachment style may be those at risk of forming greater attachments to objects over time. A learning history that includes inconsistent support from caregivers may result in individuals experiencing more empathy for fictional characters and discomfort in tense social situations, which may produce a vulnerability for becoming excessively attached to objects. Our results are in line with theories of hoarding which propose that individuals use objects to compensate for unmet interpersonal needs and suggest that treatment may need to target interpersonal functioning to reduce hoarding symptoms.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to panic buying in many countries across the globe, preventing vulnerable groups from accessing important necessities. Some reports inaccurately referred to the panic buying as hoarding. Although hoarding is a separate issue characterised by extreme saving behaviour, the two problems may be influenced by similar factors. Participants from Australia and the United States (final N = 359) completed online self-report measures of panic buying, hoarding, shopping patterns, perceived scarcity, COVID-19 illness anxiety, selfishness, and intolerance of uncertainty. Our findings showed that panic buying was related to hoarding symptoms (r's = .23 - .36), and yet, both were uniquely associated with different psychological factors. Whilst panic buying was most strongly related to greater perceived scarcity (r's = .38 - .60), hoarding was most related to a general intolerance of uncertainty (r's = .24 - .57). Based on our findings, future strategies to prevent panic buying should focus on reducing perceived scarcity cues in the community, as this seems to be the primary driver of panic buying. Another preventative strategy to reduce excessive acquiring and saving may be to implement educational programs to increase people's ability to tolerate distress and uncertainty.

Psychological treatment for hoarding problems has historically been associated with poor outcomes. When treated as a subgroup of obsessive-compulsive disorder, individuals with hoarding beliefs were less likely to respond to treatment than individuals exhibiting other obsessive-compulsive beliefs and behaviours. When treated as its own disorder using cognitive behavioural therapy, individuals report approximately 25% improvement in symptoms on average. However, less than a third of people experience clinically meaningful change. Further, changes in functioning and quality of life are not routinely assessed. In this paper, we review the current conceptualization and treatment of hoarding problems to shed light on how treatment for hoarding disorder may be improved. Utilizing a harm reduction approach before administering treatment may be important to ensure the safety of individuals. Research should test whether treatment outcomes improve by including strategies that enhance a client's interpersonal functioning and ability to regulate emotions (i.e., based on dialectal behaviour therapy and mentalization-based treatments), especially while discarding and organizing belongings. We should also use modern learning theory to improve the delivery of exposure activities.

Motives for acquiring and saving objects are closely linked to object attachment, but the nature of these associations has not been established. A better understanding of the motives for acquiring and saving possessions and how they relate to object attachment may reveal insights into the underpinnings of hoarding disorder. In turn, these insights can aid in identifying optimal targets for interventions for hoarding problems. In this paper, we propose a simple theoretical model of the dynamic associations among motives to acquire objects, object attachment, and motives to save objects, grounded in a review of the extant literature. Our hope is that this model provides a useful framework to structure future research.

Objective: Maladaptive behaviours involving consumer goods underlie compulsive buying disorder and hoarding disorder, but only hoarding disorder involves a long-term maladaptive emotional attachment to possessions. Excessive object attachment may result from using possessions to manage interpersonal conflict and buffer its corresponding loneliness. The aim of the study was to examine these two groups (acquiring problems only vs acquiring plus discarding problems) with respect to their interpersonal functioning. Method: One hundred eighty individuals who self-reported acquiring problems participated in the study; 121 of these individuals also had difficulties discarding possessions. Participants completed measures of insecure interpersonal attachment, interpersonal problems, and loneliness. Results: Participants who had acquiring and discarding problems (i.e., hoarding group) self-reported greater anxious attachment and more interpersonal problems, but not greater loneliness than those who only had an acquiring problem (i.e., compulsive buying group). The positive relationship between an anxious interpersonal attachment style and greater discarding difficulties was mediated by interpersonal difficulties. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the emotional attachment to possessions central to hoarding disorder may be a function of using possessions to compensate for unmet belongingness needs. If true, treatment outcomes may be improved by helping individuals to strengthen their interpersonal relationships.