Accurate mathematical models are vital for validating the microbial safety of low-moisture food processes like high temperature drying and roasting. However, model development is hindered by a lack of thermal resistance data for pathogens such as Salmonella spp. under relevant high-temperature, low-humidity conditions. This study aimed to develop and validate a method using conditioned desiccants to control humidity at temperatures above 90 °C. We evaluated three desiccants, silica gel, activated alumina, and molecular sieve 3A, for their ability to control relative humidity (RH) in a thermal aw cell (TAC) at temperatures from 80 to 140 °C. System equilibration was characterized, and the inactivation kinetics for a three-strain Salmonella cocktail and its surrogate Enterococcus faecium were determined at 120 °C under various low-RH conditions. Results showed that molecular sieve 3A was most effective at creating extremely dry conditions (approaching 0% RH), due to its high monolayer moisture binding capacity. Temperature and humidity equilibration within the TDT cell headspace was rapid, occurring in under 3 min. Microbial inactivation for both Salmonella and E. faecium followed first-order kinetics. D-values at 120 °C showed no significant difference when using the three unconditioned (or raw) desiccants (minimum RH) but was significantly dependent on RH in the 0-40% range, confirming the extreme protective effect of desiccation at elevated temperatures. D-values at 120 °C for the Salmonella cocktail, for example, plummeted 27-fold from 10.8 ± 4.2 min at ∼0.5% RH to 0.43 ± 0.14 min at 29.7% RH, demonstrating a critical dependence on humidity. This work successfully demonstrates a reliable method for generating critical thermal inactivation data in previously difficult-to-study, high-temperature, low-humidity environments. The resulting kinetic parameters can be used to strengthen predictive models, enabling more robust process validation for the food industry.

Postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables constitute a global crisis, with 20–30% of products lost in rich countries and up to 55% in developing nations before reaching consumers. Although traditional chemical sanitizers and refrigeration are prevalent, the increasing demand for residue-free, clean-label preservation is stimulating interest in non-thermal options. This research critically assesses the combined use of edible coatings (ECs) and plasma-activated water (PAW) as complementary hurdle technologies for postharvest preservation of fresh foods. We contend that the sequential PAW-then-EC strategy, where PAW delivers immediate, broad-spectrum RONS-mediated microbial reduction (2–4 log CFU/g), followed by EC, creating a continuous physical and bioactive barrier, overcomes the limitations of each technology individually, in a manner no single treatment can replicate. Significant findings across several commodities (strawberries, tomatoes, apples, grapes) indicate that combination treatments prolong marketable shelf life by 40–100% compared to untreated controls, diminish enzymatic browning by inhibiting PPO and POD, and preserve firmness, color, and nutritional integrity. This study highlights significant research gaps, including the instability of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) in lipid-rich coating matrices, the need to optimize process parameters for specific commodities, and the lack of internationally standardized methodologies for characterizing plasma-activated water (PAW). We determine that the commercial translation of EC–PAW systems necessitates scale-up engineering, lifecycle evaluation frameworks, and synchronized regulatory collaboration across principal markets.

Cold plasma is an emerging non-thermal technology for decontaminating food and water. This study examined how discharge frequency (500–2500 Hz), treatment time (0–300 s), and treatment method (direct vs. indirect) affect Salmonella inactivation and the formation of key reactive species. Direct treatment of a three-strain Salmonella cocktail in a micropulse bubble-spark reactor produced continuous reductions up to 6.3 log CFU/mL. Inactivation correlated with a decreased pH (approximately 3.5) and increased conductivity (170 µS/cm) and rising concentrations of ozone (0.63 mg/L), hydrogen peroxide (4.8 mg/L), nitrite (7.4 mg/L), and nitrate (94 mg/L). Higher frequency (2500 Hz) accelerated inactivation, achieving a 5-log reduction in 1 min with 17.1 kWh/m3 energy consumption, significantly faster and more efficient than the 5 min required at 500 Hz (22.6 kWh/m3). Indirect treatment (mixing inoculum into pre-activated water) achieved only a 1.3-log reduction, with ozone rapidly depleted, likely due to reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals, atomic oxygen, and peroxynitrite, not replenished. A revised Chick–Watson model, utilising dissolved ozone as a measurable proxy for reactive species accurately described Salmonella inactivation during direct treatment (R2 > 0.94, RMSE < 0.83 log CFU/mL), demonstrating that increased discharge frequencies enhance the microbial inactivation rate, presumably due to short-lived species attaining elevated dynamic balance concentrations at higher frequencies.

Bioseparation encompasses a range of unit operations, including extraction, concentration, purification, and polishing, used to isolate proteins, polyphenols, and other biomolecules from complex food matrices. This paper discusses the fundamentals and industrial methods of food bioseparation science and technology. Ultrasound, enzymes, microwaves, and supercritical fluid extraction are examined alongside sustainable deep eutectic solvents and aqueous two-phase systems. The review covers recent advances in chromatographic, membrane-based, hybrid, and continuous separation techniques. This review examines ion-exchange and simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatography alongside membrane filtration techniques, including ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO), for the purification of proteins and nucleic acids in food systems. Case studies in food biotechnology, such as whey protein recovery, plant protein isolation, and nucleotide production, employ continuous biomanufacturing and integrated upstream and downstream systems. Mechanistic process modeling, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning tools for process optimization, monitoring, and control are also examined. Emphasis is placed on water and solvent recycling, food-byproduct valorization, energy-efficient operations, and circular bioeconomy models. Emerging technologies include hybrid separation platforms, digital twin integration, and eco-designed separation materials. These advancements make bioseparation vital for the sustainability, scalability, and quality of food processing in the coming decade.

The integration of biosensors and the Internet of Things (IoT) in food packaging is gaining significant interest in rapidly enhancing food safety and traceability worldwide. Currently, the IoT is one of the most intriguing topics in the digital and virtual world. Biosensors can be integrated into food packaging to monitor, sense, and identify early signs of food spoilage or freshness. When coupled with the IoT, these biosensors can contribute to data transmission via IoT networks, providing real-time insights into food storage and transportation conditions for stakeholders across each stage of the food supply chain, facilitating proactive decision-making practices. The technologies of combining biosensors with IoT could leverage artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance food safety, quality, and security in food industries, compared to conventional existing food inspection technologies, which are limited to assessing weight, volume, color, and physical appearance. This review focused on highlighting the latest and existing advancements, identifying the knowledge gaps in the applications of biosensors and the IoT, and exploring their opportunities to shape future food packaging, particularly in the context of 21st-century food safety. The review also aims to investigate the role of the IoT in creating smart food ecosystems and examines how data transmitted from biosensors to IoT systems can be stored in cloud-based platforms, in addition to addressing upcoming research challenges. Concerns of data privacy, security, and regulatory compliance in implementing the IoT and biosensors for food packaging are also addressed, along with potential solutions to overcome these barriers.

Cold plasma is an emerging non-thermal technology for food pathogen inactivation and material surface modification. This technology was demonstrated ecofriendly and convenient with free of chemicals in food processes. The presenting study was to investigate the effectiveness of reactive species generated in cold plasma treated water (CPTW) for inactivating microbes through oxidative stress. The physical properties of CPTW created by electric discharges of O2/N2 were characterized. The potential of CPTW for fresh food applications was evaluated. The research results revealed that the pH values of CPTW significantly decreased from pH 7.4 to 3.4 and the electrical conductivity of CPTW increased from 78 to 162 mS/cm when treatment time increased from 10 to 240 s at the discharge frequency of 2000 Hz. It’s demonstrated that the CPTW was able to significantly inactivate E. coli TOP 10 in water. The substantial reduction in E. coli TOP 10 cells increased from 1.6 to 8 log at a frequency of 2000 Hz when the treatment times changed from 10 to 240 s. It’s also verified that the CPTW significantly reduced the bacterial load and extended the shelf life of the strawberries up to 30 days without compromising their quality compared to untreated control samples. This information is useful for the design of effective cold plasma processes in food engineering applications. Further research is necessary to explore the full potential of cold plasma technology in enhancing food safety and quality in the future.

The development of eco-friendly, mechanically stable, and biocompatible materials for medical packaging has gained significant attention in recent years. Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have emerged as a promising nanomaterial due to their unique tubular structure, high aspect ratio, and biocompatibility. We aim to develop a novel soybean oil-based thermoset bio-resin incorporating HNTs and to characterize its physical and functional properties for medical packaging. Soybean oil was epoxidized using an eco-friendly method and used as a precursor for preparing the thermoset resin (ESOR). Different amounts of HNTs (0.25, 0.50, and 1.0 wt.%) were used to prepare the ESOR/HNTs blends. Various characteristics such as transparency, tensile strength, thermal resistance, and water absorption were investigated. While incorporating HNTs improved the tensile strength and thermal properties of the ESOR, it noticeably reduced its transparency at the 1.0 wt.% level. Therefore, HNTs were modified using sodium hydroxide and (3-Aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) and ESOR/HNTs blends were made using 1.0 wt.% of modified HNTs. It was shown that modifying HNTs using NaOH improved the transparency and mechanical properties of prepared blends compared to those with the same amount of unmodified HNTs. However, modifying using (3-Aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) decreased the transparency but improved the water absorption of prepared resins. This study provides valuable insights into the design of HNT-based ESOR blends as a sustainable material for medical packaging, contributing to the advancement of eco-friendly packaging solutions in the healthcare industry.

The curcumin was encapsulated within a double-layered complex shell of nano-sized cellulose as the primary layer and the native starch (MDC) or the nano-sized starch (NDC) as the secondary layer to improve its stability, decreasing its release rate, while masking bitterness. The double-walled curcumin capsules were studied for encapsulation efficiency, colour behaviour at different pH and characterization using FTIR, DSC & FESEM. The encapsulation efficiency for NDC and MDC was 97.11 % & 90.46 %. The FTIR showed a shift of peaks to higher wavelength particularly at 1043 cm -1 and most of the curcumin peaks disappeared or had low intensity as enclosed within the layers of the capsules. Further, fish fillets were coated in starch paste containing 20 % double-walled curcumin capsules and the visible colour change was observed during a 7-day storage period at refrigerated conditions that could confirm the spoilage of fish to consumers without opening the package.

Bio-based epoxy resin materials have obtained significant attention in the packaging industry due to concerns about the environmental and economic impacts of traditional petroleum-based plastics. The aim of this research is to improve bio-based resins’ properties by investigating varying formic acid contents in the presence of a green catalyst and characterizing their physical, chemical, and mechanical properties for further scaled-up bio-based resin production for industrial packaging applications. The crude soybean oil was epoxidized with formic acid as an oxidizing agent at varying equivalent weights of 10:1 to 10:10 of soybean oil: formic acid in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and choline chloride-oxalic acid as a bi-functional green catalyst. The effect of increasing the amount of formic acid used to epoxidize crude soybean oil was evaluated with infrared (IR) spectroscopy, rheological, and epoxy yield measurements. The results demonstrated that formic acid significantly influenced the epoxidation of soybean oil, leading to a higher conversion of carbon-carbon double bonds, with a selectivity of 98% when the ratio of soybean oil to formic acid was between 10:5 and 10:10. The bio-resin film was formulated using the improved epoxidized soybean oils—from ESO (10:2.5) to ESO (10:10)—and equal amounts of acrylic acid. The results showed that resin films led to an improvement in tensile strength (ca. 180 MPa) and thermal stability at 360 °C. Although further research is necessary, this study provides valuable insights for designing an effective epoxidation process for renewable sources and developing bio-resin materials for future packaging applications.

Corn and soybean crop residue was used as a source of carbon for producing magnetic activated carbon. The magnetic activated carbon (MAC) was produced using potassium carbonate (K2 CO3) as an activating agent, and iron III oxide (Fe3O4) to induce magnetization. After activation in a muffle furnace, the MAC was allowed to cool to room temperature and then washed with deionized water, distilled water, or left unwashed. Absorption capabilities of the MAC were tested using methylene blue and iodine number determination tests. These tests showed MAC samples washed with distilled water outperformed the others in every test. Using the values found in these tests, estimated surface area of MAC can be calculated. Based on previous research these test values were extrapolated to approximate the MAC‘s capability for absorbing pollutants from wastewater. These pollutants that should be tested in future work related to this study are nitrates/nitrogen, phosphorus, microorganisms and antibacterial agents, and pH value.

Bio-based epoxy resin materials have garnered increasing attention from packaging markets because of concerns in recent years from both environmental and economic perspectives of traditional petroleum-based plastic materials. The long-term goal of this research is to develop low-cost, value-added, and bio-based epoxy resins from conventional soybean oils and commercialize the technology to be scaled up for epoxy resin production for packaging industries. Epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) was developed through the synthesis of conventional soybean oil by applying deep eutectic solvent catalysts, such as choline chloride–oxalic acid (DES-02) and choline chloride–butyric acid (DES-06) followed by three steps of washing neutralization processes. The impact of the catalysts on the epoxidation process was verified using titration methods in combination with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies. The results showed that lower viscosity and pH of ESO with a high selectivity of 73% when soybean oil was epoxidized with bifunctional DES-02 catalysts. The carbon–carbon double bond conversions was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance and revealed that DES-02 was effective to epoxidize soybean oil. Although further research is necessary, this research thus opens the perspectives for designing better quality of bio-resins for packaging industrial application in future.

The scientific community has recently focused on developing high-value-added epoxidized soybean oil and green bio-based epoxy resins using sustainable resources because of their cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness. A part of this developing epoxy resin includes the replacement of conventional petroleum-based resins with their green counterparts, that is, bio-based epoxy resins. The long-term goal of this research is to develop low-cost, value-added, and bio-based epoxy resins from conventional soybean oils and commercialize the technology to be scaled up for epoxy resin production for chemical industries. Epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) was developed through the synthesis of conventional soybean oil by applying deep eutectic solvent catalysts, such as choline chloride-oxalic acid (DES-02) and choline chloride-butyric acid (DES-06) followed by three steps of washing neutralization processes. The impact of the catalysts on the epoxidation process was verified using titration methods in com-bination with infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies. The results showed an optimal carbon --carbon double bond conversion with a high selectivity of 73% when soybean oil was epoxidized with bifunctional DES-02 catalysts. The conventional epoxidized soybean oil synthesis without deep eutectic catalysts yielded relatively low carbon-carbon double bond conversions with 5% selectivity. Various novel bio-based epoxy resins with equal amounts of ESO and acrylic acid as monomers were developed, followed by injection molding. Bio-based epoxidized soybean resin films were characterized by dynamic mechanical and thermo-mechanical analyses. The results showed that resin films catalyzed by DES-02 and DES-06 improved the storage modulus (ca. 2000 MPa) and loss modulus (ca. 390 MPa).

Water is essential to crop growth and a limiting natural resource for agricultural production. However, current water use efficiencies (WUE) in many crop productions are low due to soil types, climate conditions, irrigation methods, etc. Drip irrigation is an effective method to water plants at higher WUE, particularly in low-profile water areas. The uniformity of water supply in irrigation systems in large areas may affect crop productivity. This study investigated the effects of uniformity of water supply of a drip irrigation system on the crops (corn and sunflower) grown in a greenhouse. This dripping irrigation system comprised 42 emitter outlets over 60 feet of the supply pipe. The water from the emitter was randomly collected at different points to analyze the uniformity of water supplied by the system. The height and the total biomass of the crop were also measured. It was found that there were significant variations in the water supply in the drip irrigation system. The uniformity of water supply significantly affected crop growth. The resulting information from this study can help to understand and design better drip irrigation systems for future applications in agricultural production.

Cheese is a nutrient rich dairy product, and it is of great significance to fully describe its textural, functional, and flavour properties that impact its quality. These properties are extensively influenced by the microstructure. For instance, the functional properties are particularly important for cheeses used in pizza, i.e., stretching, melting, browning, free oil development, and expressible moisture. The prediction and consequent control of these properties demands knowledge of the spatial distribution of the components of cheese and how they interact and change during ripening. This chapter reviews the study of the microstructure of cheeses and the recent advancements in visualization technologies.

Anti-corrosion and antifouling coatings and painting are only a few of the many disciplines where thermoset epoxy resins are used extensively nowadays. Researchers have recently shown a great deal of interest in bio-based thermoset resins, which are generated from renewable feedstocks. Soybean oil is one of the best raw materials for use in the production of epoxy thermoset resins, as it is inexpensive and can result in a product with a high added value. This industry can boost the economies of countries with abundant soybean oil surpluses, such as the United States. However, the poor mechanical strength of manufactured resin is one of the most significant obstacles that must be overcome. Due to their inexpensive cost and high aspect ratio, halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have been employed extensively to improve the mechanical properties of various polymer matrices. This project intends to make thermoset resins using ecologically friendly procedures and chemicals and to improve their mechanical qualities by including halloysite nanotubes, both in their natural and modified forms (HNTs). Despite the standard method of epoxidation of soybean oil, we make thermoset resins from soybean oil using green chemicals. We observed that pristine (HNTs) at 0.25, 0.5, and 1 wt% can improve the mechanical and thermal properties of our manufactured resins. To improve the dispersion of (HNTs) in the matrix of thermoset resins and prevent its aggregation, we modified them with sodium hydroxide and (3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES). Despite unmodified HNTs, the alkali-modified HNTs produced transparent composites, which can be interpreted as evidence of improved dispersion and less aggregation of HNTs in the thermoset resin matrix. However, the modification using APTES did not lead to more transparent films.

E. coli O157:H7, one of the major foodborne pathogens, can cause a significant threat to the safety of foods. The aim of this research is to develop an activated biochar-based immunosensor that can rapidly detect E. coli O157:H7 cells without incubation in pure culture. Biochar was developed from corn stalks using proprietary reactors and then activated using steam-activation treatment. The developed activated biochar presented an enhanced surface area of 830.78 m2/g. To develop the biosensor, the gold electrode of the sensor was first coated with activated biochar and then functionalized with streptavidin as a linker and further immobilized with biotin-labeled anti-E. coli polyclonal antibodies (pAbs). The optimum concentration of activated biochar for sensor development was determined to be 20 mg/mL. Binding of anti-E. coli pAbs with E. coli O157:H7 resulted in a significant increase in impedance amplitude from 3.5 to 8.5 kΩ when compared to an only activated biochar-coated electrode. The developed immunosensor was able to detect E. coli O157:H7 cells with a limit of detection of 4 log CFU/mL without incubation. Successful binding of E. coli O157:H7 onto an activated biochar-based immunosensor was observed on the microelectrode surface in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images.

Food safety is a worldwide public concern that has recently gained increased attention due to the emerging outbreaks of foodborne diseases. Therefore, there is a pressing need to make simple, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly methods for detecting food spoilage and to mitigate the impact of possible outbreaks. The aim of this study is to develop a biodegradable indicator film which was made by combining cellulose-nanofiber/chitosan dyed with methyl red synthesis and followed by a single layer coating of PLA on its surface, named PLA/CCM film. The microstructural properties of PLA/CCM films were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and results showed that PLA effectively adhered to the surface of CCM film. The microbial response to PLA/CCM film was determined via a bacterial plating method. It was found that the contact of film with the microbes caused a substantial color change in the film. The coating of PLA upon the CCM film decreased the percentage of the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). The color of the film vividly altered from slightly red to yellow in response to a pH change in the range of 4–8. The PLA/CCM film was applied to monitor the spoilage of beef and fish at an ambient condition (23 °C) and revealed the onset of food spoilage by displaying the color change from red to yellow after 1 day.

The amount of intact casein provided by dairy ingredients is a critical parameter in dairy-based imitation mozzarella cheese (IMC) formulation because it has a significant effect on unmelted textural parameters such as hardness. From a functionality perspective, rennet casein (RCN) is the preferred ingredient. Milk protein concentrate (MPC) and micellar casein concentrate (MCC) cannot provide the required functionality due to the higher steric stability of casein micelle. However, the use of transglutaminase (TGase) has the potential to modify the surface properties of MPC and MCC and may improve their functionality in IMC. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of TGase-treated MPC and MCC powders on the unmelted textural properties of IMC and compare them with IMC made using commercially available RCN. Additionally, we studied the degree of crosslinking by TGase in MPC and MCC retentates using capillary gel electrophoresis. Three lots of MCC and MPC retentate were produced from pasteurized skim milk via microfiltration and ultrafiltration, respectively, and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments: no TGase (control); low TGase: 0.3 units/g of protein; and high TGase: 3.0 units/g of protein, followed by inactivation of enzyme (72°C for 10 min), and spray drying. Each MCC, MPC, and RCN was then used to formulate IMC that was standardized to 21% fat, 1% salt, 48% moisture, and 20% protein. The IMC were manufactured by blending, mixing, and heating ingredients (4.0 kg) in a twin-screw cooker. The capillary gel electrophoresis analysis showed extensive inter- and intramolecular crosslinking. The IMC formulation using the highest TGase level in MCC or MPC did not form an emulsion because of extensive crosslinking. In MPC with a high level of TGase, whey protein and casein crosslinking were observed. In contrast, crosslinking and hydrolysis of proteins were observed in MCC. The IMC made from MCC powder had significantly higher texture profile analysis hardness compared with the corresponding MPC powder. Further, many-to-one (multiple) comparisons using the Dunnett test showed no significant differences between IMC made using RCN and treatment powders in hardness. Our results demonstrated that TGase treatment causes crosslinking hydrolysis of MCC and MPC at higher TGase levels, and MPC and MCC have the potential to be used as ingredients in IMC applications.