The way food is presented can significantly influence liking, satiation, and emotional responses to food. This study explored these effects across two separate experiments by examining the impact of plate size (small vs. large) and plating style (high-stacked vs. spread) on participants' liking, satisfaction, fullness, and food-evoked emotions when consuming chicken salad. In the first experiment, conducted online (n = 192), we used interactive 360-degree videos to simulate real-life experiences of chicken salads under the different conditions. The second experiment expanded this research into a real-life cafeteria setting (n = 176) where participants actually consumed the chicken salads. In this setting, salads served on a large plate with high-stacked plating received the highest ratings for liking, compared to the other conditions: small plate-high-stacked, small plate-spread, and large plate-spread. This condition also evoked the most positive food-related emotions, such as happiness, satisfaction, and relaxation, and was perceived as closest to the "ideal portion size." Notably, the real-life experiment provided a better discrimination between the experimental conditions, with more intense and higher ratings on food-evoked emotions, liking, and willingness to pay compared to the online context. Real-life eating encompasses social interactions, sensory stimulation and post-ingestive effects, offering a richer and more accurate representation of actual eating experiences. These findings highlight the importance of real-life multimodal measurement environments for obtaining accurate measures of food perception, acceptance and eating behaviours.

Eating rate (ER) is now recognised as an important driver of food and energy intake, and is strongly influenced by a food's texture. However, little is known about how the textures of multiple food components combined affect the ER of a composite dish. In a full cross-over study, 54 healthy participants (age: 25 +/- 7 years, BMI: 22 +/- 3 kg/ m2) consumed 12 different pasta dishes. The dishes comprised single penne or carrot (hard and soft; 4 samples), single penne or carrot (hard and soft) with tomato sauce (4 samples), and combined penne (hard and soft) with carrots (hard and soft) and tomato sauce (4 samples). Behavioural coding analysis was used to quantify participant ER and oral processing behaviours for each dish. Soft penne was consumed 42% faster than hard penne (P < 0.001) and soft carrots were consumed 94% faster than hard carrots(P < 0.001) when presented as single foods without sauce. The addition of sauce increased ER for both penne and carrots by approximately 30% (both P < 0.001). For the composite dishes, the ER of the dish with soft carrot, soft penne and sauce was consumed 45% faster than the same dish with hard components (P < 0.001). The ER of the composite dishes could be predicted from the ER of its single components. The ER of individual components cumulatively determined the ER of the composite dish, rather than ER being driven only by the slowest dish component. These insights provide guidance on how to compose texture modified meals that moderate both ER and energy intake.

Portion size manipulation is well known to be effective in increasing vegetable intake in adults, whereas less is known about the effects of portion size manipulation on reducing meat intake. This online study investigated the effects of recommended and regularly consumed portion sizes of vegetables and meat in five familiar Dutch meals. Participants evaluated 60 food pictures of five meals and used a 100 mm VAS to measure expected liking, satiety, food-evoked emotions, and the perceived normal portion size. The results show that both regular and recommended portions scored above 55 on the 100 mm VAS on expected liking and satiety. Similarly, both portion sizes scored high (55-70 on the 100 mm VAS) in positive emotions (i.e., happy, relaxed, and satisfied). Regarding the perceived amount of meat, men consistently preferred larger portions of meat than women. However, the optimal portion sizes of vegetables were similar for men and women. Furthermore, the recommended portion sizes led to positive food-evoked emotions, implying that the effective implementation of portion size strategies for increasing vegetable and limiting meat intake requires a careful, holistic approach focusing on the sensory characteristics of food products as well as the emotions evoked by the total food experience.

Frequent consumption of industrially processed foods has been associated with obesity. However, it is unknown what drives this association. Food textures of industrially processed foods that stimulate energy overconsumption may be an important driver of this association. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the independent and combined effects of food texture and level of industrial food processing (based on the NOVA classification) on daily energy intake and eating behaviour. Eighteen healthy adults (F/M: 11/7, 23 ± 3 y, 22.1 ± 2.0 kg/m2) participated in a 2 × 2 randomized crossover dietary intervention with four conditions (total of 288 meals): hard unprocessed, hard (ultra-)processed, soft unprocessed and soft (ultra-)processed. Daily diets were offered ad libitum and were equal in energy density (1 kcal/g). Food Intake (g) was measured by pre- and post-consumption weighing of the plates. Eating behaviour parameters were derived from video annotations. Daily energy intake and food intake were, respectively, 33 https://www.clinicaltrials.gov , February 21st 2020.

The average intake of fruits across the world is lower than recommended. This lower intake of fruit is surprising as fruit is a typically liked food, and a higher liking is generally associated with a higher intake. The question then arises as to why do levels of fruit intake remain lower than recommended. This study investigated dynamic changes in hedonic and emotional responses to a fresh fruit salad consisting of pineapple, strawberries and blueberries. In a within-subjects design, 45 participants (aged 26.7 +/- 4.6 years) randomly consumed three portion sizes of food (i.e. small, regular and large) across three sessions. The foods were divided into a first and last section of consumption. Before and after consumption, hunger and liking were measured. Throughout consumption, emotional responses were measured with Temporal Dominance of Emotions (TDE). Results showed that liking increased from before consumption till after consumption for all portions. The emotional profiles (TDE) of small, regular, and the first section of the large portion were dominated by happy and relaxed. However, the emotional profile for the last section of the large portion size, also showed negative emotions to become dominant, i.e. bored. These results show that large portions of fresh fruit salad may be less enjoyed by consumers as compared to eating a small or regular portion. This implies that consuming smaller portions of fruit on several occasions across the day, may serve the goal of meeting the recommended daily fruit intake better than eating a large portion of fruit in a single occasion. These findings contribute to a better understanding of how consumers perceive and respond to changes in portion size, and allow to address the effectiveness of portion size strategies for consumer health and wellbeing.

The vast majority of dietary and eating behavior assessment methods are based on self-reports. They are burdensome and also prone to measurement errors. Recent technological innovations allow for the development of more accurate and precise dietary and eating behavior assessment tools that require less effort for both the user and the researcher. Therefore, a new sensor-based device to assess food intake and eating behavior was developed. The device is a regular dining tray equipped with a video camera and three separate built-in weighing stations. The weighing stations measure the weight of the bowl, plate, and drinking cup continuously over the course of a meal. The video camera positioned to the face records eating behavior characteristics (chews, bites), which are analyzed using artificial intelligence (AI)-based automatic facial expression software. The tray weight and the video data are transported at real-time to a personal computer (PC) using a wireless receiver. The outcomes of interest, such as the amount eaten, eating rate and bite size, can be calculated by subtracting the data of these measures at the timepoints of interest. The information obtained by the current version of the tray can be used for research purposes, an upgraded version of the device would also facilitate the provision of more personalized advice on dietary intake and eating behavior. Contrary to the conventional dietary assessment methods, this dietary assessment device measures food intake directly within a meal and is not dependent on memory or the portion size estimation. Ultimately, this device is therefore suited for daily main meal food intake and eating behavior measures. In the future, this technology based dietary assessment method can be linked to health applications or smart watches to obtain a complete overview of exercise, energy intake, and eating behavior.

One way to promote healthier eating behaviors is to reduce food portion sizes and thereby decrease the average daily energy consumed. Positive emotion is a crucial factor in consumers affective responses to food and add to liking ratings in predicting food preferences and choices. Despite this, we know little about the emotional experiences in response to variations in portion size. This study investigated dynamic changes in hedonic and emotional responses to high energy-dense foods varying in portion size. In a within-subjects design, 58 participants (aged 24.1 +/- 2.9 years) randomly consumed three different food portions (i.e., small, regular and large) of two food products (i.e., ice cream and pizza) across six experimental sessions. Explicit measures included liking scores and scores on hunger, arousal, overall satisfaction and Temporal Dominance of Emotions (TDE). Implicit measures included facial (emotional) expressions using FaceReader (TM). Results showed that the small and regular portions scored higher on liking than the large portions, for both the ice cream and pizza. In addition, the small portions had similar emotional (TDE) profiles as the regular portions (happy, relaxed and peace), whereas the large portions evoked more negative emotional (TDE) profiles compared to the small and regular portions (bored, guilty, disgusted). The implicit measure facial expressions resulted in a less clear picture, except for the dimensions valence and arousal for ice cream. Participants showed more negative facial expressions and were more aroused during consumption of the regular and large (too much) portion as compared to the small portion during consumption of ice cream. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the role of emotions in the consumption experience of food products varying in portion size and will help to identify the ideal size of a food product for inducing a positive emotional response.

ABSTRACT Background Taste preference is an important determinant of dietary intake and is influenced by taste exposure in early life. However, data on dietary taste patterns in early childhood are scarce. Objectives We aimed to evaluate dietary taste patterns in early childhood, to examine their tracking between the ages of 1 and 2 y, and to examine their associations with socioeconomic and lifestyle factors. Methods Dietary intake of children participating in a population-based cohort was assessed with a 211-item age-specific FFQ at the ages of 1 y ( n = 3629) and 2 y (n = 844) (2003–2007). Taste intensity values of FFQ food items were calculated based on a food taste database that had been previously constructed and evaluated using a trained adult sensory panel. Cluster analysis based on taste values identified 5 taste clusters that we named: “neutral,” “sweet and sour,” “sweet and fat,” “fat,” and “salt, umami and fat.” Linear regression models were used to examine associations of percentage energy (E%) intake from these taste clusters with socioeconomic and lifestyle factors. Results At the age of 1 y, 64% ± 13% (mean ± SD) of energy intake was obtained from the “neutral” cluster, whereas at age 2 y, this was 42% ± 8%. At age 2 y, children had higher energy intakes from the “sweet and fat” (18% ± 7%), “fat” (11% ± 4%), and “salt, umami, and fat” (18% ± 6%) clusters than at age 1 y (7% ± 6%, 6% ± 4%, and 11% ± 6%, respectively). In multivariable models, older maternal age, longer breastfeeding duration, and later introduction of complementary feeding were associated with more energy from the “neutral” cluster (e.g., β: 0.31 E%; 95% CI: 0.19, 0.43 E% per 1 mo longer breastfeeding). Higher child BMI was associated with more energy from the “salt, umami, and fat” cluster (β: 0.22 E%; 95% CI: 0.06, 0.38 E% per BMI standard deviation score). Conclusions Dietary taste patterns in this Dutch cohort were more varied and intense in taste at age 2 y than at 1 y, reaching a level similar to that previously observed in Dutch adults. Important factors related to dietary taste patterns of young children are maternal sociodemographic factors and feeding practices. This trial was registered at trialregister.nl as NL6484.

Background and aim: Cancer is one of the major public health problems, with colorectal cancer being one of the most occurring types of cancer. During treatment, patients may experience changes in their dietary intake due to side-effects of treatment, like changes in chemosensory perception, i.e. smell and taste function. This study investigated alterations in chemosensory perception and food preferences in colorectal cancer patients during and after adjuvant chemotherapy. Methods: Objective olfactory and gustatory function were measured by the Sniffin' Sticks and the Taste Strips test. Subjective smell and taste perception were determined with a questionnaire, while food preferences were assessed with a computer-based ranking task. To investigate changes during chemotherapy, patients undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy were measured before the start, halfway through (approximately 3 months after the start of adjuvant chemotherapy), and within one month after finishing chemotherapy (longitudinal measurements, n = 15 patients). As a comparison group, colorectal cancer patients not undergoing chemotherapy (n = 20), underwent the same measurements at similar time points. To measure changes after treatment, chemosensory perception and food preferences of patients who had undergone chemotherapy treatment were measured once, either at 6, 12 or 24 months after diagnosis (cross-sectional measurements; n = 20 for all time points). Changes during treatment were assessed using linear mixed model analyses, and changes after treatment were assessed with a one-way ANOVA or a Kruskal Wallis test. Results: Objective olfactory and gustatory function did not differ statistically significantly between any of the groups and at any time point during or after treatment (all p > 0.05). In contrast, subjective smell (F(1,84) = 8.17, p = 0.005) and taste (F(1,99) = 4.08, p = 0.046) perception were rated statistically significantly lower by patients undergoing chemotherapy than the comparison group during treatment. At 6 months after diagnosis, patients who underwent chemotherapy rated their subjective taste perception significantly lower than patients at 12 and 24 months after treatment (F(2,57) = 12.05, p = 0.002). Food preferences did not change during treatment, or thereafter (all p > 0.05). Preference for protein-rich foods was positively correlated with objective gustatory function (r = 0.36, p < 0.001), while the preference for low-energy foods showed a negative correlation with objective gustatory function (r = -0.28, p = 0.004). Conclusions: Similar to other cancer patient populations, mainly subjective smell and taste perception are affected in colorectal cancer patients undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy. Changes in objective olfactory and gustatory function in relation to chemotherapy were not detected by the tests used in our study nor did food preferences change. However, it should be noted that subjective changes in smell and taste perception can affect subsequent flavor perception and food enjoyment, which might negatively impact eating behavior and nutritional intake. (C) 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism.

Gastric digestion is crucial for protein breakdown. Although it has been widely studied with in vitro models, verification in vivo remains a big challenge. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential to bridge this gap. Our objective was to use the transverse relaxation time (T-2) and rate (R-2 = T-2(-1)) to monitor hydrolysis of protein-rich food during in vitro gastric digestion. Whey protein solution and heat-induced hydrogels were digested by means of simulated gastric fluid (SGF). Free amino groups (-NH2 groups) and protein concentration in the supernatant were measured. T-2 and R-2 of the digestion mixture were determined by time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) and MRI. Subsequently, relative amplitudes (TD-NMR) for different T-2 values and T-2 distribution (MRI) were determined. For the solution, protein concentration and T-2 did not change during digestion. For the gels, water in supernatant and gel phase could be discriminated on the basis of their T-2 values. During digestion, R-2 of supernatant correlated positively with protein (-NH2 groups) concentration in SGF. Also, the decrease in relative amplitude of gel fraction correlated linearly with the increase of supernatant protein concentration. MRI T-2-mapping showed similar associations between R-2 of supernatant and protein (-NH2 groups) concentration. In conclusion, T-2-measurements by TD-NMR and MRI can be used to monitor in vitro gastric digestion of whey protein gels; TD-NMR measurements contributed to interpreting the MRI data. Thus, MRI has high potential for monitoring in vivo gastric digestion and this should be further pursued.

Many people implicitly (automatically) believe that unhealthy foods are tastier than healthy foods, even when they explicitly (deliberately) report that they don't. It is unclear whether this 'unhealthy = tasty intuition' is already present in childhood. Children from families with a lower socioeconomic position (SEP) consume poorer diets than children from families with a higher SEP. Paradoxically, populations with a lower SEP are under-represented in research and least reached by lifestyle interventions. This study explored implicit and explicit associations between healthiness, tastiness and liking of foods in primary school-aged children and parents with a lower SEP. These associations and an estimate of dietary intake were assessed with implicit association tests and paper-and-pencil questionnaires, developed and adapted specifically for this target group. Participants were recruited at Dutch food banks. Results of 37 parent-child dyads indicated that children and parents implicitly associated healthy foods and tastiness more strongly with each other than healthy foods and not tasty (D = - 0.19, p = .03 and D = - 0.46, p < .001, respectively). Explicitly, parents showed similar results, while children rated pictures of unhealthy foods as tastier than pictures of healthy foods. Following the discrepancy between our hypotheses, results, and more unhealthy eating habits that often prevail in families with a lower SEP, potential explanations are discussed. We address the possibility that an internalised social norm was exposed, rather than an intrinsic belief. We propose that this research calls for in-depth qualitative research on food-related preferences and norms in the everyday life of low SEP families.

Olfaction plays a major role in food intake regulation. Losing the sense of smell might therefore affect eating behavior. This study investigated food preferences and intake in individuals suffering from self-reported smell loss with an online survey. Members of the Dutch Anosmia Foundation (DAF) performed the Macronutrient and Taste Preference Ranking Task (n = 71) to measure preference for foods high in fat, carbohydrates or protein and low energy foods, and for sweet and savory tastes. To assess dietary intake, adherence to the Dutch Dietary Guidelines for consumption of vegetables, fruit, fiber, fish, saturated fat, trans fatty acids, salt and alcohol was measured (n = 105). Results of the DAF participants were compared to local cohort groups. Both the control and DAF participants showed the lowest preference for carbohydrate-rich foods and highest preference for low-energy foods. Participants suffering from congenital smell loss showed an aberrant pattern, with a higher preference for fat. The total adherence score to the Dutch Dietary Guidelines was similar for the control and DAF group, but adherence scores for fiber, trans fatty acids and alcohol were lower in DAF participants. Overall, no major significant differences in food preferences and intake were found for participants who lost their sense of smell during life. Participants suffering from congenital smell loss did show changes in food preferences, suggesting they are potentially more taste-oriented during eating. Together these results show the importance of tailored advice on dietary intake for this patient group.

ABSTRACT Cephalic phase responses (CPRs) are conditioned anticipatory physiological responses to food cues. They occur before nutrient absorption and are hypothesized to be important for satiation and glucose homeostasis. Cephalic phase insulin responses (CPIRs) and pancreatic polypeptide responses (CPPPRs) are found consistently in animals, but human literature is inconclusive. We performed a systematic review of human studies to determine the magnitude and onset time of these CPRs. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used to develop a search strategy. The terms included in the search strategy were cephalic or hormone response or endocrine response combined with insulin and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). The following databases were searched: Scopus (Elsevier), Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar, and The Cochrane Library. Initially, 582 original research articles were found, 50 were included for analysis. An insulin increase (≥1μIU/mL) was observed in 41% of the treatments (total n = 119). In 22% of all treatments the increase was significant from baseline. The median (IQR) insulin increase was 2.5 (1.6–4.5) μIU/mL, 30% above baseline at 5± 3 min after food cue onset (based on study treatments that induced ≥1 μIU/mL insulin increase). A PP increase (>10 pg/mL) was found in 48% of the treatments (total n = 42). In 21% of the treatments, the increase was significant from baseline. The median (IQR) PP increase was 99 (26–156) pg/mL, 68% above baseline at 9± 4 min after food cue onset (based on study treatments that induced ≥1 μIU/mL insulin increase). In conclusion, CPIRs are small compared with spontaneous fluctuations. Although CPPPRs are of a larger magnitude, both show substantial variation in magnitude and onset time. We found little evidence for CPIR or CPPPR affecting functional outcomes, that is, satiation and glucose homeostasis. Therefore, CPRs do not seem to be biologically meaningful in daily life.

Sensitivity of the somatosensory system may be influenced by multiple physiological parameters. Variations in oral physiology can arise from cross-cultural differences which may potentially affect sensory sensitivity. The aim of this case study was to quantify texture and taste sensitivity in Dutch (Caucasian) and Chinese (Asian) adults living in the Netherlands. Eighty-five healthy subjects were recruited including 44 Dutch (Caucasian) adults (29 females, 22.8 ± 2.3 yrs) and 41 Chinese (Asian) adults (30 females, 24.5 ± 2.1 yrs) living in the Netherlands for less than 1 year. Three sets of stimuli were used to quantify sensitivity of thickness (maltodextrin solutions differing in viscosity), firmness (agar gels differing in fracture stress) and sweetness (sucrose solutions differing in concentration). The 2-Alternative Forced Choice (2-AFC) ascending staircase method was used to determine texture and taste sensitivity. Unstimulated and stimulated saliva flow rate, fungiform papillae density (FPD), lingual tactile threshold and PROP taster status were determined and are referred to as physiological and sensory consumer characteristics. No significant differences were observed between Chinese and Dutch adults for thickness (Dutch 2.60 mPas, Chinese 2.19 mPas), firmness (Dutch 10.5 kPa, Chinese 10.3 kPa) and sweetness sensitivity (Dutch 0.012 g/mL, Chinese 0.017 g/mL). No significant differences were observed between Chinese and Dutch adults for saliva flow rate, lingual tactile threshold and PROP taster status. The relationships between the three sensory sensitivities (thickness, firmness, sweetness) and five physiological and sensory consumer characteristics (unstimulated and stimulated saliva flow rate, FPD, lingual tactile threshold, PROP taster status) were analyzed. Only one out of 15 relationships, firmness sensitivity and FPD, was significantly and weakly related suggesting that inter-individual variation in these consumer characteristics is almost unrelated to sensory sensitivity. We conclude that in this case study thickness, firmness and sweetness sensitivities do not differ between Dutch and Chinese adults living in the Netherlands. Saliva flow rate, fungiform papillae density, lingual tactile threshold and PROP taster status do not explain inter-individual variation in sensory sensitivity between these consumers.