A 3-yr-old male inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented to the University of California–Davis Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital for lethargy and hematemesis. Initial diagnostics revealed a severe non-regenerative anemia. The patient was hospitalized and underwent medical management, including two blood transfusions and also antibiotic and antifungal therapy during hospitalization. Despite these treatments, the patient acutely declined after approximately 1 mo of hospitalization, and euthanasia was elected due to recurrence of hematemesis. A necropsy was performed, and histopathology revealed a disseminated lymphoma in the oropharynx, stomach, liver, kidney, lungs, and testis. This case report outlines the challenges encountered in diagnosing an unusual presentation of lymphoma in this species and in managing the resulting severe blood loss and anemia.

Nannizziopsis arthrosporioides, a keratinophillic fungus, has caused infection in multiple reptile species. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of commercially available disinfectants against the growth of N. arthrosporioides. Two molecularly confirmed isolates of N. arthrosporioides were used. Hyphal growth was collected from agar plates, filtered, and then diluted to high and low conidial concentrations. Each conidial suspension was exposed for 5 or 10 minutes to sterile water (control), 10% dilution of commercial bleach containing sodium hypochlorite, 409 multipurpose cleaner containing benzyl ammonium chloride, chlorhexidine 2% solution, F10 SC (benzyl ammonium chloride and polyhexanide) at recommended product labels (1:100, 1:250), 10% dilution of povidone-iodine, and Rescue disinfectant (activated hydrogen peroxide, 1:16). Both isolates at each exposure time failed to grow after exposure to 409 multipurpose cleaner, commercial bleach, chlorhexidine, povidone iodine, and Rescue disinfectant. Inhibition of N. arthrosporioides growth was variable following exposure to F10 SC. Nannizziopsis arthrosporioides can be effectively inactivated using various commercially available disinfectants, and data provided here adds to the growing body of knowledge surrounding appropriate disinfection of fungi that can act as reptile pathogens.

Background: In ferrets, osteomas are rare, benign bone-originating tumors that can lead to detrimental clinical signs which negatively impact their quality of life. To date, current reported successful treatments include complete surgical excision for curative intent. Surgical debulking and subsequent radiotherapy was a novel approach to treatment employed in this case. Case description: A 10-month-old, neutered male, sable ferret (Mustela putorius furo) presented with a firm, immobile, subcutaneous mass (15.6 mm x 14.0 mm x 16.0 mm; rostrocaudal x mediolateral x dorsoventral) originating from the lateral margin of the angle of the left mandible based on computed tomographic (CT) scan. Surgical debulking was performed and the mass was confirmed to be an osteoma on histopathology. To follow, stereotactic radiotherapy was prescribed to treat the residual mandibular mass effect with 8 Gy delivered each day for 3 sequential days (total dose of 24 Gy). There were no apparent early or late adverse effects of radiation and no regrowth was appreciated clinically or on CT scans 141 days post-surgery (106 days post-radiotherapy) and 403 days post-surgery (368 days post-radiotherapy). The ferret died approximately 2 years post-operation due to unknown cause without obvious regrowth of the mandibular mass at the time of death. Conclusions and case relevance: In this ferret, the combination of surgical debulking and stereotactic radiotherapy resulted in a clinical cure of a mandibular osteoma for at least 2 years. Additional studies with a larger sample size may further elucidate early and late radiation side effects, surgical complications, and long-term outcome.

Nannizziopsis guarroi causes dermatomycosis in lizards and snakes. Little is known about the environment's role in transmission of the fungus. The environments of bearded dragons experimentally inoculated with N. guarroi were cultured weekly to assess the presence of viable N. guarroi. Four of six (4/6, 66.67%) enclosures demonstrated an environmental presence of N. guarroi prior to the observation of clinical lesions in the bearded dragon housed there. The environments were positive for N. guarroi growth 7-28 days prior to lesion development. The environment should be considered as a potential site of infection for naïve reptile hosts and environmental seeding may occur prior to the development of clinical nannizziomycosis in exposed lizards.

A wild caught snake presented with progressive dermatopathy and was euthanized due to a clinical suspicion for ophiomycosis. Over the next 7 days, six additional ball pythons, maintained in the same room but in separate cages from the index case developed similar progressive dermatomycoses and were euthanized. Histopathologic evaluation showed dermal granulomas with intralesional fungi and DNA from the lesions clustered in a monophyletic group with other isolates of N. athrosporioides. Colony and microscopic morphology of fungus from these cases matched published descriptions of N. arthrosporioides. While ophidiomycosis may be a major differential for dermatomycosis in snakes, molecular confirmation should be pursued, as additional fungi may cause similar lesions in this taxon.

IntroductionNannizziopsis guarroi causes mycotic dermatitis, colloquially known as “yellow fungus disease”, in lizards. Several fungal diagnostic assays may detect this microbe in clinical cases, but the clinical performance of these assays has yet to be explored.MethodsSix adult bearded dragons were topically exposed to N. guarroi along the dorsal midline and serially sampled over five months as clinical cutaneous lesions developed.ResultsThe median dates of first test positivity for fungal culture, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and commercially available next-generation sequencing (NGS) were 28, 6, and 17.5 days prior to lesion development, respectively. Lesions did not fluoresce under long-wave ultraviolet illumination. Femoral pores were a site of infection in all four male lizards, representing a novel presentation. Additionally, one lizard developed subclinical granulomatous N. guarroi pneumonia. Postmortem assessment of diagnostics identified a high level of agreement between histopathology, fungal culture, and qPCR; however, cytologic agreement with histopathology was poor.DiscussionFungal culture, qPCR, and NGS are appropriate screening tools for the detection of N. guarroi prior to the onset of cutaneous lesions and may be used as diagnostic tools to confirm N. guarroi infection in clinically affected bearded dragons.

Free-ranging red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) commonly present to wildlife facilities and veterinary clinics for injury or illness, and bloodwork is often an essential tool in their diagnostic workup. However, the type of anticoagulant used and the sample storage time prior to processing may potentially impact hematological values. This study evaluated differences between EDTA and lithium heparin (HEP) preserved blood samples in packed cell volume (PCV), total solids (TS), estimated WBC counts by smear, and WBC differential counts. Additionally, differences in estimated WBC counts and WBC differential counts between anticoagulant-free (AF) and anticoagulant preserved blood smears were evaluated. Values were compared at time of blood collection and again after refrigeration for two, six, and 24 hours. Packed cell volume and TS were not significantly different between type of anticoagulant or time stored. Statistically significant differences in estimated WBC counts between AF samples and ETDA samples were found at all time points after time of collection (p = 0.025, 0.021, 0.010 for t = 2, 6, 24, respectively), while no differences were noted between AF samples and HEP samples. White blood cell differential count was impacted with variable significance by both time and anticoagulant. Clinically, HEP should be considered the anticoagulant of choice in this species and consideration should be taken to evaluate samples as close to collection time as possible.

BACKGROUND:Amphibian skin has unique structural properties and physiological functions that make it vulnerable to environmental influences and trauma. Based on a comprehensive literature search, no large-scale study has assessed the most common causes of dermatopathies or diagnostics clinically employed in these taxa. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES:This study aimed to evaluate aetiologies of dermatological disease, diagnostic methods, treatments and incidence of antemortem versus postmortem diagnosis of dermatological disease in amphibians under human care. ANIMALS/MATERIALS AND METHODS:This descriptive retrospective study reviewed the medical records of 223 amphibians with dermatological disease evaluated at five institutions between 1 January 1986 and 1 January 2024. RESULTS:The most common aetiologies of dermatological disease were infectious (47.1%; 105 of 223), undefined (21.5%; 48 of 223) and inflammatory (20.6%; 46 of 223). Diagnosis of bacterial skin disease or chytridiomycosis was most often made based on histological results. Antemortem diagnostic testing was performed in 22.9% (51 of 223) of amphibians. A diagnosis was determined antemortem in 31.4% (70 of 223) of cases, and postmortem in 68.7% (153 of 223) of cases. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE:Although dermatopathies are common in amphibians under human care, an antemortem diagnostic approach was uncommon, representing areas for improvement in the medical management of this taxon.

Exotic companion mammals, including ferrets, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and hedgehogs, often suffer from lower urinary track pathology. This article focuses on advancements over the past decade, highlighting urolithiasis, relationships to accessory sex gland pathology, and new clinical information on urinary diagnostics. This article highlights recent advances in understanding lower urinary tract diseases in exotic mammals, emphasizing species-specific presentations, diagnostics, and management. Urolithiasis remains prevalent, with notable shifts in stone composition in ferrets and high-complication rates in guinea pigs post-cystotomy. Advances include improved imaging techniques, such as ultrasonography, computed tomography, and MRI, alongside species-specific urinalysis reference values.

Anesthesia is often pursued to facilitate diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in reptile species. Despite this, there are no data on the safety of inhalant anesthesia in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). In this retrospective study, medical records of inland bearded dragons presenting to a single academic institution and delivered isoflurane anesthesia between 1 February 2002 and 31 August 2022 were collected. Cases were excluded if isoflurane anesthesia was only used before euthanasia. Data collected included retroactive American Society of Anesthesiologist (ASA) status, survival status 3 days after the anesthetic event, procedures performed, anesthetic complications, and time under isoflurane anesthesia. During the inclusion period, 445 inland bearded dragons were presented to the institution in 948 visits. Of these visits, 40 inhalant anesthetic events performed on 34 inland bearded dragons were included in this study. The most common procedures performed were ovariosalpingectomy (15/40, 37.5%); exploratory celiotomy (3/40, 7.5%); mass removal (7/40, 17.5%); and limb, toe, or tail amputations (8/40, 20%). All 40 cases recovered from inhalant anesthesia and survived to discharge. The most common anesthetic-associated complication reported was prolonged recovery (4/40, 10%), and most anesthetic events (30/40, 75%) were ≤1 h in duration. ASA status ranged from I to IV, with most cases assigned ASA status III (18/40, 45%). Information on survival status at 3 days postanesthetic event was available in 35 (70%) of 40 cases, and all but 1 (34/35, 97.1%) of these cases survived. Overall, our single-institution retrospective data support that isoflurane anesthesia was associated with low morbidity and mortality in inland bearded dragons undergoing a variety of procedures. Further multi-institutional studies should be pursued to validate these findings against a broader population size by using prospectively assigned ASA status.

BackgroundNannizziopsis guarroi causes contagious dermatomycosis in lizards. Treatment failures are commonly encountered and may be related to the prolonged environmental persistence of this microbe. F10 SC, containing benzalkonium chloride and polyhexanide, is a commercially available disinfectant often used in management of reptile infections particularly by hobbyists and breeders.MethodsThree molecularly confirmed isolates of N. guarroi were aseptically collected into aqueous suspensions and diluted to 2 fungal concentrations. Each concentration of each isolate was exposed to 3 dilutions of F10 SC (1:20, 1:100, 1:500) for a 10-minute contact time based upon product label recommendations. Culture growth on standard potato-dextrose agar after 10 days of incubation was assessed for characteristic colony growth and cytology evaluation for fungal elements. The experimental design included control conditions as well as biological and technical replication.ResultsAll control conditions grew characteristic fungal colonies with fungal elements visualized cytologically. Both concentrations of all 3 isolates exhibited no growth after contact with the highest concentration of the disinfectant (1:20) however fungal growth was evident after contact with the lowest concentration of disinfectant (1:500).Conclusions and clinical relevanceEnvironments exposed and/or contaminated with N. guarroi can be effectively disinfected using F10 SC for a contact time of 10 minutes. Exposure to living tissue has not been evaluated and cannot be recommended at this time. Further work evaluating F10 SC disinfection against clinically relevant microbes should be pursued.

Hematology is a common diagnostic assay for evaluation of health in veterinary species. Several manual methods exist to evaluate the leukocyte component of reptile complete blood counts; however, no single method has been proven reliable for all reptiles. To investigate the analytical variability and agreement of commonly used leukocyte quantification methods, blood was collected from 10 clinically healthy bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and analyzed in triplicate using Natt-Herricks (NH) solution, eosinophilic leukopet (LO), and estimated white blood cell counts on peripheral blood smears made from fresh whole blood or blood anticoagulated with lithium heparin (LH). To investigate interobserver variability, blood film white blood cell estimates were generated by both a novice veterinary student and a boarded clinical pathologist and analyzed for agreement. Analytical variability was highest using the LH blood film estimate by a boarded clinical pathologist (21.0%), followed by the student's NH method (20.8%), fresh whole blood film estimate from the clinical pathologist (16.6%), eosinophilic LO (student; 8.7%), and blood film estimates using fresh whole blood (6.5%) and LH blood (4.5%), read by the student. Bland Altman plots revealed that agreement occurred between LO and NH methods and between the two blood film estimate methods; Passing-Bablok regression analysis revealed constant and proportional error between LO and both estimate methods and between NH and both estimate methods. Agreement occurred between the veterinary student and clinical pathologist for both blood smear leukocyte estimates. These results highlight the importance of considering which leukocyte quantification method is used when clinically assessing reptile patients.

Background: Emydomyces testavorans is an emerging fungus associated with shell lesions in aquatic chelonians. At this time, reporting has focused on species of conservation concern including the northwestern pond turtle ( Acti- nomyces marmorata ) and aquatic chelonians in conservation programs or managed collections, however, little attention has been focused on the occurrence of E. testavorans infection in companion chelonians. Methods: Swabs of the plastron and carapace of client owned companion chelonians (n = 64) presenting to a teaching hospital were collected and assayed for E. testavorans via qPCR. Categorical information including signalment, and the presence or absence of clinical shell and cutaneous lesions was collected. Results: Three of 64 (4.7 %, 95 % con fidence interval 1.6 %-12.9 %) companion chelonians had positive ET qPCR results with quantities of 150.93, 372.30 and 11,469 target copies per reaction. The 3 positive shell swabs were all from red-eared sliders ( Trachemys scripta elegans ). One of the 3 positive chelonians had grossly apparent shell lesions, while the others did not. Conclusions and clinical relevance: E. testavorans DNA is detectable in companion chelonians both with and without externally appreciable shell lesions. Veterinarians working with aquatic companion chelonians, particularly redeared sliders, should be aware of this important differential and consider diagnostic testing for E. testavorans in suspicious cases.

Objective The aim of this study was to identify safe corridors for pin placement in the terminal thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae and sacrum of rabbits using computed tomography (CT) in cadaveric models. Study Design Computed tomographic imaging of 25 adult New Zealand white rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculi) cadavers was evaluated. Safe insertion corridors at the cranial and caudal end cortical sections (ECS) of the vertebrae were determined using a multiplanar reconstruction software. Pins were placed to allow maximal bone purchase within the safe corridors. Post-procedure CT imaging was performed to evaluate the pin position. Results The median safe corridor height in the thoracic and lumbar cranial ECS (2.54 mm; 1.39-3.97 mm) was significantly lower than that of caudal ECS (3.98 mm; 1.66-5.53 mm; p < 0.001). The mean widths of the left and right sacral safe corridors were not significantly different. Of the 99 pins placed, 70.7% of the pins were appropriately placed without vertebral canal impingement. Errors included partial canal impingement (12.1%), complete canal impingement (5.1%), inadequate bone purchase (7.1%), placement into the intervertebral disc space (1.0%) or in the incorrect ECS than intended (4.0%). The odds ratio of successful pin insertion without canal impingement was 2.77 (95% confidence interval, 1.04-7.43; p < 0.05) times higher in the caudal ECS than in the cranial ECS. Conclusion The corridor identified in this study can be used as a guideline for pin placement in the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of New Zealand white rabbits. Further biomechanical studies are required.

OBJECTIVE:To assess the efficacy of transmucosal euthanasia solution to induce euthanasia.ANIMALS:6 bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps).METHODS:An initial dose of euthanasia solution containing pentobarbital and phenytoin sodium was administered transmucosally in conscious lizards (100 mg/kg pentobarbital dose), followed by a second dose 20 minutes later (400 mg/kg pentobarbital dose). The presence of movement, leakage of euthanasia solution, behaviors consistent with oral irritation, respiratory rate, heart rate, palpebral and corneal reflex, and response to noxious stimuli were recorded until death, confirmed by the absence of Doppler cardiac flow and cardiac electrical activity. The time to loss of all parameters was calculated. Postmortem evaluation allowed for histopathologic evaluation of the oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract to detect potential mucosal damage from the alkaline euthanasia solution.RESULTS:The median time to death was 300 minutes (range, 300 to 360 minutes), median time to respiratory arrest was 30 minutes (range, 30 to 50 minutes), and median time to loss of deep pain response was 30 minutes (range, 20 to 50 minutes). Signs consistent with oral irritation occurred in 4 of 6 (66.7%) lizards, including 2 lizards that exhibited whole-body spasms after euthanasia solution administration. Histopathologic changes indicating peracute mucosal ulceration, suspected to be from caustic causes, were identified in 1 (1/6 [16.7%]) lizard.CLINICAL RELEVANCE:Transmucosal euthanasia solution administration resulted in clinical euthanasia within 6 hours. This method should be utilized only after premedication with analgesic and/or anesthetic medications due to the potential for acute mucosal ulceration and behaviors that may be distressing in client-owned animals.

A growing spotlight on insect welfare as research subjects, fodder for vertebrate animals, and patients for veterinarians highlights the need to establish humane euthanasia methods for these species. An insect of increasing commercial importance is the king worm (Zophobas morio), a type of darkling beetle larvae. The initial objective of this study was to determine if prolonged exposure to isoflurane would lengthen anesthetic recovery and lead to euthanasia. Larvae were exposed to isoflurane for 10 min, 40 min, 70 min, 190 min, 13 h, and 24 h (n = 10 for each treatment duration group), and time to recovery was subsequently monitored in room air. The second objective was to determine effectiveness of secondary euthanasia methods: injectable potassium chloride at 1 mg/g body weight (n = 5) and 3 mg/g body weight (n = 5) doses; immersion in 200 proof ethanol (n = 10), 10% buffered formalin (n = 10), and water (n = 10); and freezing at -18°C (n = 10). Prolonged exposure to isoflurane led to extended recovery times, but 100% mortality was not achieved. Submersion in ethanol and injection of potassium chloride at a 3 mg/g body weight dose resulted in 100% mortality. If these larvae are to be used as future food sources, a humane euthanasia method that preserves the ability to be consumed is required.

Background: Avian hematologic characteristics complicate evaluation; therefore, complete blood cell counts require manual analysis for best accuracy. Furthermore, the quality of samples may be affected by prolonged shipment. Methods: Blood was collected from the right jugular vein of twenty-four, 7-year-old (14 male, 10 female), wild- type cockatiels ( Nymphicus hollandicus). ) . Smears were prepared using fresh, untreated blood. The remainder was divided into dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and lithium heparin microtainers. A hematocrit tube and blood smear were prepared at baseline, 24, 48, and 72 hours after venipuncture. Packed cell volume (PCV), total solids (TS), estimated white blood cell (WBC) count, WBC differential (heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils), hemolysis index (HI), and preparation quality were assessed and compared to baseline. After log transformation, the effects of anticoagulants across time points were compared. Results: Heparinized samples had significant differences in WBC, heterophil, and lymphocyte counts at 48 hours, and PCV and TS at 72 hours compared to baseline. There was a positive proportional bias in PCV and TS from EDTA anticoagulant samples at 24, 48, and 72 hours, and from heparinized samples at 48 and 72 hours compared to baseline. The EDTA samples had increased PCV and TS compared to heparin at all time points, and higher WBC and heterophil counts at 48 hours compared to baseline. A type II methodological error cannot be excluded. Conclusions and clinical relevance: These results suggest that the anticoagulant used and time spent in anticoagulant alters hematologic values in cockatiels, which may have significant clinical implications. The importance of sample processing within 24 hours and anticoagulant-specific reference intervals for hematologic variables should be considered.

OBJECTIVE To describe the clinical features, histopathologic lesions, and outcome of cardiovascular disease in central bearded dragons. ANIMALS 54 bearded dragons. METHODS Retrospective evaluation of captive bearded dragons with antemortem imaging or postmortem diagnosis of cardiovascular disease from 2007 to 2022 from 6 hospitals. RESULTS The total prevalence of cardiovascular disease was 3.3% (54/1,655). Physical examination findings were available in 46 cases with change in mentation being the most common finding (n = 28/46 [60.9%]), followed by dehydration (17/46 [37%]), palpable coelomic mass (13/46 [28.3%]), dyspnea (10/46 [21.7%]), and sunken eyes (10/46 [21.7%)]. Doppler auscultation revealed an arrhythmia in 5/34 (14.7%) animals. Diagnostic imaging was only performed on 21 animals, and 10 (47.6%) had cardiovascular abnormalities described. In total, 84 cardiovascular diagnoses were found in 54 animals. The most common diagnosis was myocarditis (n = 14) followed by aneurysms (11), pericardial effusion (9), atherosclerosis (7), epicarditis (7), and myocardial degeneration/necrosis (7). Overall, 62 causes of death were identified in 52 cases, with cardiovascular disease being the most common (n = 18/52 [34.5%]). Only 3/54 animals were diagnosed with congestive heart failure. Animals with aneurysms were more likely to die to due cardiovascular disease compared to other types of cardiovascular diagnoses (OR, 43.75; 95% CI, 4.88 to 392.65; P < .001). CLINICAL RELEVANCE Diagnosis of cardiovascular disease in bearded dragons is challenging given the inconsistent clinical presentation; however, it should remain a differential in animals with nonspecific signs of illness. Antemortem diagnostics are recommended in suspected cases, including diagnostic imaging. Of the cardiovascular diseases described, aneurysms most often contributed to clinical demise.