Effective water and wetland management for waterbirds during nesting events benefits from knowledge of nesting timing, staging, duration, and associated foraging locations. Such information can inform managers about when, where, and for how long management actions such as environmental watering or predation protection are needed to support specific nesting stages. This is particularly relevant for species nesting in aggregations that are dependent on flooding of key sites to initiate and complete their nesting cycles, such as ibis and spoonbills. These species are frequently targeted for adaptive water and wetland management to support successful breeding events and can be bioindicators of wetland change. However, obtaining on-ground nesting data for highly mobile species in remote or inaccessible sites can be difficult. To solve this problem, we used GPS satellite telemetry to track nesting events for 3 species that frequently nest together in remote wetlands managed with environmental water: Threskiornis spinicollis (Straw-necked Ibis), T. molucca (Australian White Ibis), and Platalea regia (Royal Spoonbill). This is the first time that satellite telemetry for these highly mobile species has been used to analyze: (1) nest stages and nest attendance patterns; (2) distances travelled to forage during nesting; and (3) timing and duration of nesting events. We found both intra- and inter-species variation in nest attendance patterns and foraging distances. There were changes in nest attendance and foraging distance patterns corresponding with transitions between each of the 4 main nest stages: (1) nest establishment; (2) incubation; (3) immobile chicks; (4) mobile chicks. We discuss how this information can be used to implement strategic conservation management of waterbird populations and habitats including environmental watering, nest protection, and predator control. Information about waterbird movements during nesting is critical to knowing when, where, and for how long management actions are needed, but is difficult to obtain for highly mobile species at inaccessible sites. To solve this problem, we tracked waterbird movements during nesting in remote sites with GPS satellite telemetry, for 3 species: Threskiornis spinicollis (Straw-necked Ibis), T. molucca (Australian White Ibis), and Platalea regia (Royal Spoonbill). We found both intra- and inter-species variation in nest attendance patterns and foraging distances. There were changes in nest attendance and foraging distance patterns corresponding with transitions between each of the 4 main nest stages: (1) nest establishment; (2) incubation; (3) immobile chicks; (4) mobile chicks. This information can be used to inform strategic conservation management actions for waterbirds during nesting, including environmental watering, nest protection, and predator control. El manejo efectivo del agua y de los humedales para las aves acu & aacute;ticas durante los eventos de anidaci & oacute;n se beneficia del conocimiento sobre el momento, las etapas, la duraci & oacute;n y los lugares de alimentaci & oacute;n asociados a la anidaci & oacute;n. Esta informaci & oacute;n puede orientar a los gestores sobre cu & aacute;ndo, d & oacute;nde y durante cu & aacute;nto tiempo son necesarias acciones de manejo como el aporte de agua ambiental o la protecci & oacute;n contra depredadores para apoyar etapas espec & iacute;ficas de la anidaci & oacute;n. Esto es particularmente relevante para las especies que anidan en agregaciones y dependen de la inundaci & oacute;n de sitios clave para iniciar y completar sus ciclos reproductivos, como los ibis y las esp & aacute;tulas. Estas especies son con frecuencia objeto de acciones de manejo adaptativo del agua y de los humedales para favorecer eventos reproductivos exitosos, y pueden actuar como bio-indicadores de cambios en los humedales. Sin embargo, obtener datos de anidaci & oacute;n en el terreno para especies altamente m & oacute;viles en sitios remotos o inaccesibles puede ser dif & iacute;cil. Para resolver este problema, utilizamos telemetr & iacute;a satelital GPS para seguir eventos de anidaci & oacute;n de tres especies que frecuentemente anidan juntas en humedales remotos manejados con agua ambiental: Threskiornis spinicollis, T. molucca y Platalea regia. Esta es la primera vez que la telemetr & iacute;a satelital para estas especies altamente m & oacute;viles se utiliza para analizar: (1) las etapas del nido y los patrones de asistencia al nido; (2) las distancias recorridas para alimentarse durante la anidaci & oacute;n; y (3) el momento y la duraci & oacute;n de los eventos de anidaci & oacute;n. Encontramos variaci & oacute;n tanto intra- como inter-espec & iacute;fica en los patrones de asistencia al nido y en las distancias de alimentaci & oacute;n. Hubo cambios en los patrones de asistencia al nido y de la distancia de alimentaci & oacute;n que coincidieron con las transiciones entre cada una de las cuatro etapas principales del nido: (1) establecimiento del nido; (2) incubaci & oacute;n; (3) polluelos inm & oacute;viles; (4) polluelos m & oacute;viles. Discutimos c & oacute;mo esta informaci & oacute;n puede utilizarse para implementar un manejo estrat & eacute;gico de conservaci & oacute;n de las poblaciones y h & aacute;bitats de aves acu & aacute;ticas, incluyendo el aporte de agua ambiental, la protecci & oacute;n de nidos y el control de depredadores.

Waterbird population and species diversity maintenance are important outcomes of wetland conservation management, but knowledge gaps regarding waterbird movements affect our ability to understand and predict waterbird responses to management at appropriate scales. Movement tracking using satellite telemetry is now allowing us to fill these knowledge gaps for highly mobile waterbirds at continental scales, including in remote areas for which data have been historically difficult to acquire. We used GPS satellite telemetry to track the movements of 122 individuals of three species of ibis and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae) in Australia from 2016 to 2023. We analysed movement distances, residency periods and areas, and foraging-site fidelity. From this we derived implications for water and wetland management for waterbird conservation. This is the first multi-year movement tracking data for ibis and spoonbills in Australia, with some individuals tracked continuously for more than five years including from natal site to first breeding attempt. Tracking revealed both inter- and intra-specific variability in movement strategies, including residency, nomadism, and migration, with individuals switching between these behaviours. During periods of residency, areas used and distances travelled to forage were highly variable and differed significantly between species. Sixty-five percent of identified residency areas were not associated with wetlands formally listed nationally or internationally as important. Tracking the movements of waterbirds provides context for coordinated allocation of management resources, such as provision of environmental water at appropriate places and times for maximum conservation benefit. This study highlights the geographic scales over which these birds function and shows how variable waterbird movements are. This illustrates the need to consider the full life cycle of these birds when making management decisions and evaluating management impacts. Increased knowledge of the spatio-temporal interactions of waterbirds with their resource needs over complete life cycles will continue to be essential for informing management aimed at increasing waterbird numbers and maintaining long-term diversity.

Context Nomadic waterbirds are highly mobile across a range of spatial and temporal scales, which makes it difficult to monitor, quantify, and predict their habitat use with traditional methods, especially between breeding events when individuals and flocks can move over vast areas. Objectives This study aimed to provide accurate information on habitat use to improve strategic conservation management of these species, particularly the provisioning of environmental water. Methods To overcome the challenges of distance and remoteness, we analysed a 7-year GPS satellite telemetry dataset from 141 individuals. We quantified habitat selection post-dispersal from breeding sites, and predicted habitat preference for two wading waterbird species of the Threskiornithidae family that frequently nest together at the same sites: straw-necked ibis (Threskiornis spinicollis) and royal spoonbill (Platalea regia). Results Both long-term and short-term landscape-scale habitat associations differed between species. Royal spoonbills used fewer and more restricted habitat types than straw-necked ibis. Spoonbills displayed strong preferences for reservoirs, marshes and permanent wetlands, while ibis used both aquatic and terrestrial habitat, including areas of intensive animal production, modified pasture, and woodlands. Analysis of nocturnal versus diurnal space use showed that roosting and foraging habitat requirements for both species are distinct. Conclusions Analysing over 1 million telemetry points revealed species-level variability in habitat use, informing resource allocation for environmental water management. Royal spoonbills are more vulnerable to habitat change due to water regime alterations, highlighting the need for focused conservation management. Differences in day and night habitat use indicate the necessity of considering roosting habitats alongside foraging habitats for effective conservation. This comprehensive understanding of waterbirds' spatiotemporal interactions with their environment is crucial for long-term management aimed at increasing waterbird numbers and maintaining diversity.

ABSTRACTWaterbirds are highly mobile and have the ability to respond to environmental conditions opportunistically at multiple scales. Mobility is particularly crucial for aggregate‐nesting species dependent on breeding habitat in arid and semi‐arid wetlands, which can be ephemeral and unpredictable. We aimed to address knowledge gaps about movement routes for aggregate‐nesting nomadic waterbird species by tracking them in numbers sufficient to make robust assessment of their movement patterns. We hypothesised that analysis of long‐distance movements would identify common routes with consistent environmental features that would be useful as context for conservation management. We used GPS satellite telemetry to track the movements of 73 straw‐necked ibis (Threskiornis spinicollis) and 42 royal spoonbills (Platalea regia) over 7 years (2016‐2023). We used these data to identify long‐distance movements and to demarcate and characterise movement routes. We identified common routes used by both species, including a ‘flyway’ over 2000 km long, spanning Australia's Murray–Darling Basin from the south‐west to the north‐east. This flyway connects important breeding sites and is characterised by flat, open/unforested areas with low elevations of < 350 m and mid to high rainfall. The flyway corresponds to an area west of Australia's Great Dividing Range, which appears to act as a low‐permeability barrier to the movement of both species. Identification of an inland flyway for waterbirds in Australia provides important context for multi‐jurisdictional cooperation and strategic management. Where resources are limited, water and wetland management efforts (e.g., environmental watering) should be preferentially located within this route. Similarly, targeting threat mitigation within common movement routes may have disproportionate importance for long‐term population viability. Given the widespread distribution of similar species globally, there are likely to be other flyways worthy of scientific and conservation management attention that could be identified using our approach.

Ecological condition continues to decline in arid and semi-arid river basins globally due to hydrological over-abstraction combined with changing climatic conditions. Whilst provision of water for the environment has been a primary approach to alleviate ecological decline, how to accurately monitor changes in riverine trees at fine spatial and temporal scales, remains a substantial challenge. This is further complicated by constantly changing water availability across expansive river basins with varying climatic zones. Within, we combine rare, fine-scale, high frequency temporal in-situ field collected data with machine learning and remote sensing, to provide a robust model that enables broadscale monitoring of physiological tree water stress response to environmental changes via actual evapotranspiration (ET). Physiological variation of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (River Red Gum) and E. largiflorens (Black Box) trees across 10 study locations in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia, was captured instantaneously using sap flow sensors, substantially reducing tree response lags encountered by monitoring visual canopy changes. Actual ET measurement of both species was used to bias correct a national spatial ET product where a Random Forest model was trained using continuous timeseries of in-situ data of up to four years. Precise monthly AMLETT (Australia-wide Machine Learning ET for Trees) ET outputs in 30 m pixel resolution from 2012 to 2021, were derived by incorporating additional remote sensing layers such as soil moisture, land surface temperature, radiation and EVI and NDVI in the Random Forest model. Landsat and Sentinal-2 correlation results between in-situ ET and AMLETT ET returned R-2 of 0.94 (RMSE 6.63 mm period(-1)) and 0.92 (RMSE 6.89 mm period(-1)), respectively. In comparison, correlation between in-situ ET and a national ET product returned R-2 of 0.44 (RMSE 34.08 mm period(-1)) highlighting the need for bias correction to generate accurate absolute ET values. The AMLETT method presented here, enhances environmental management in river basins worldwide. Such robust broadscale monitoring can inform water accounting and importantly, assist decisions on where to prioritize water for the environment to restore and protect key ecological assets and preserve floodplain and riparian ecological function.

There have been few empirical studies of the sensitivity of birds to the effect of air pollutants. In late 2019 and early 2020 the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and much of south-eastern Australia were affected by extreme wildfire events and smoke extended to surrounding areas. Prior to this event, GPS transmitters had been fitted to a sample of Little Eagles Hieraaetus morphnoides in the ACT as part of a study of their movement behaviour. Three of these birds carried transmitters in the breeding season during the fires and in the previous breeding season. This offered opportunistic analysis of data from both periods to test for effects of smoke on the birds’ flight behaviour. The effects of particulate matter in the air of ≤2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5) and covariates on flight status were investigated with a binomial generalised linear model with logistic link. The birds were more likely to fly when there were low levels of PM2.5 and the odds of flying decreased as density of PM2.5 increased at a rate of 0.202% per ug/m3. None of the sample birds died during or after smoke exposure, although their respiratory system might have been affected.

Long‐lived vegetation is a key attribute of lowland river floodplains; yet dieback is increasingly being reported globally, with prior studies identifying salinity, drought and altered flow regimes as key stressors. In the Murray–Darling Basin (Australia), many floodplain/wetland areas have management strategies that aim to maintain the condition of floodplain tree communities. Environmental water delivery is a key tool used to achieve such outcomes. Currently, one of the primary tools for determining the need for environmental water delivery is a qualitative visual assessment of tree crown condition. To advance to more quantitative assessment and understanding of tree condition, we present a suite of techniques ranging from low‐cost, rapid visual assessment of tree crown condition to laboratory analysis of components of soil condition and in situ measurement of tree physiology. The aim is to address a number of key knowledge gaps on how to use the linkages between soil water availability ↔ tree physiology ↔ tree visual condition to quantitatively inform environmental water delivery decisions to meet management objectives. We have developed a multiple‐lines‐of‐evidence management assessment framework that presents a pathway to enable managers to improve prioritisation management actions. Furthermore, increased confidence in predicted outcomes should assist water holders and floodplain managers to optimise timing and maximise the benefits of environmental watering. Application of outcomes of this research will increase the efficiency of environmental water use.

Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) trees are ubiquitous in riparian–floodplain zones of Australia’s south-eastern river catchments, where natural ecosystems continue to be affected. In the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB), provision of environmental flows to mitigate tree decline is informed by past field studies. However, broadscale empirical field data on tree nutrition and response to external changes remain scarce. This is the first study to gather soil and plant data across a large area of catchment lowlands to generate a low-resolution regional snapshot of tree nutrition and soil chemistry. Leaves and soils were sampled across and adjacent to the MDB; from and beneath mature trees of three key riverine eucalypts, Eucalyptus largiflorens, E. camaldulensis, and E. coolabah. Foliar sodium concentrations ranged from ∼500 mg kg−1 for E. coolabah up to ∼4500 mg kg−1 for E. largiflorens, with highest values at the River Murray sites. The results suggest E. largiflorens is highly salt tolerant by foliage accumulation given all trees sampled were in good condition. Further research into these species is needed to determine toxicity thresholds for elements such as sodium to aid early diagnosis of potential tree stress, which could provide an additional line of evidence for when environmental water is required to mitigate decline.

Abstract Mouse plagues are a regular feature of grain‐growing regions, particularly in southern and eastern Australia, yet it is not clear what role various ecological processes play in the eruptive dynamics generating these outbreaks. This research was designed to assess the impact of adding food, water, and cover in all combinations on breeding performance, abundance, and survival of mouse populations on a typical cereal growing farm in northwestern Victoria. Supplementary food, water, and cover were applied in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design to 240 m sections of internal fence lines between wheat or barley crops and stubble/pasture fields over an 11‐month period to assess the impact on mouse populations. We confirmed that mice were eating the additional food and were accessing the water provided. We did not generate an outbreak of mice, but there were some significant effects from the experimental treatments. Additional food increased population size twofold and improved apparent survival. Both water and cover improved breeding performance. Food and cover increased apparent survival. Our findings confirm that access to food, water, and cover are necessary for outbreaks, but are not sufficient. There remain additional factors that are important in generating mouse plagues, particularly in a climatically variable agricultural environment.

Water resource development in many parts of the world has resulted in serious reductions in the frequency, extent, and duration with which floodplain woodlands are inundated, resulting in significant habitat change and loss of productivity. Yet few studies have attempted to assess the effects of different flood regimes upon floodplain vegetation and fauna communities together, particularly during the terrestrial phase. We use new space-for-time substitution data from south-eastern Australia to describe the nature of Eucalyptus largiflorens floodplain woodland communities under different flood regimes, from which inferences may be made about the consequences of water management decisions. We explore the hypothesis that differences in flood regime drive dissimilarities in vegetation structure and condition as well as variation in woodland bird abundance. Overall, insufficient flooding was associated with degradation of floodplain woodland condition and structure, as well as shifts in the relative abundance of key woodland bird groups. The results suggest that changes in flooding frequency are associated with significant shifts in site character and ultimately transitions in community composition, even within the same broad vegetation type. Importantly, these transitions are the result of interactions between water availability, vegetation changes, fauna habitat preferences, and interspecific interference competition. In addition, they indicate the influence of altered flood regimes upon terrestrial fauna of floodplain ecosystems rather than just aquatic componentsa link that is relatively neglected by both scientists and managers to-date. Such transitions and links have far-reaching implications for ecosystem function at multiple scales and for how floodplains are understood, valued, and managed.

Stem diameter is one of the most common measurements made to assess the growth of woody vegetation, and the commercial and environmental benefits that it provides (e.g. wood or biomass products, carbon sequestration, landscape remediation). Yet inconsistency in its measurement is a continuing source of error in estimates of stand-scale measures such as basal area, biomass, and volume. Here we assessed errors in stem diameter measurement through repeated measurements of individual trees and shrubs of varying size and form (i.e. single- and multi-stemmed) across a range of contrasting stands, from complex mixed-species plantings to commercial single-species plantations. We compared a standard diameter tape with a Stepped Diameter Gauge (SDG) for time efficiency and measurement error. Measurement errors in diameter were slightly (but significantly) influenced by size and form of the tree or shrub, and stem height at which the measurement was made. Compared to standard tape measurement, the mean systematic error with SDG measurement was only −0.17 cm, but varied between −0.10 and −0.52 cm. Similarly, random error was relatively large, with standard deviations (and percentage coefficients of variation) averaging only 0.36 cm (and 3.8%), but varying between 0.14 and 0.61 cm (and 1.9 and 7.1%). However, at the stand scale, sampling errors (i.e. how well individual trees or shrubs selected for measurement of diameter represented the true stand population in terms of the average and distribution of diameter) generally had at least a tenfold greater influence on random errors in basal area estimates than errors in diameter measurements. This supports the use of diameter measurement tools that have high efficiency, such as the SDG. Use of the SDG almost halved the time required for measurements compared to the diameter tape. Based on these findings, recommendations include the following: (i) use of a tape to maximise accuracy when developing allometric models, or when monitoring relatively small changes in permanent sample plots (e.g. National Forest Inventories), noting that care is required in irregular-shaped, large-single-stemmed individuals, and (ii) use of a SDG to maximise efficiency when using inventory methods to assess basal area, and hence biomass or wood volume, at the stand scale (i.e. in studies of impacts of management or site quality) where there are budgetary constraints, noting the importance of sufficient sample sizes to ensure that the population sampled represents the true population.

Systematic reviews provide a rigorous, repeatable and quantitative method for assessing and synthesizing all available empirical evidence to evaluate a specific research, management, or policy question. They are particularly well suited for evaluating the effectiveness of environmental management actions, and thus for underpinning evidence-based adaptive natural resource management. However, their current utility may be limited in countries like Australia, where both the amount of research relative to land area and of well-monitored, active land management for environmental purposes are relatively low. Based on our experience conducting two of the first ecological systematic reviews in Australia, we have developed a number of recommendations for conducting systematic reviews in situations where resources and/or primary research data are limited. We discuss potential modification or augmentation of most aspects of the systematic review process including selection of a review team, question formulation, search strategy, data analysis, and the communication of results, as well as the inherent tradeoffs between systematic thoroughness and available resources that are involved in these changes. We hope that our recommendations will encourage more ecologists to undertake systematic reviews even if primary research and resources to conduct the review appear to be limited, as even a modified systematic review can provide more defensible evidence-based guidelines for management of natural resources.

Water resource development and drought have altered river flow regimes, increasing average flood return intervals across floodplains in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia, causing health declines in riparian river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forests and woodlands. Environmental flow allocations helped to alleviate water stress during the recent Millennium Drought (1997-2010); however, quantification of the flood frequency required to support healthy E.camaldulensis communities is still needed. We quantified water requirements of E.camaldulensis for 2years across a flood gradient (trees inundated at frequencies of 1:2, 1:5 and 1:10years) at Yanga National Park, New South Wales, to help inform management decision-making and design of environmental flows. Sap flow, evaporative losses and soil moisture measurements were used to determine transpiration, evapotranspiration and plant-available soil water before and after flooding. A formula was developed using plant-available soil water post-flooding and average annual rainfall, to estimate maintenance time of soil water reserves in each flood frequency zone. Results indicated that soil water reserves could sustain 1:2 and 1:5 trees for 15months and 6years, respectively. Trees regulated their transpiration rates, allowing them to persist within their flood frequency zone, and showed reduction in active sapwood area and transpiration rates when flood frequencies exceeded 1:2years. A leaf area index of 05 was identified as a potential threshold indicator of severe drought stress. Our results suggest that environmental water managers may have greater flexibility to adaptively manage floodplains in order to sustain E.camaldulensis forests and woodlands than has been appreciated hitherto. Copyright (c) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Irrigated agriculture in south-east Australia has increased water availability to native flora and fauna by creating artificial open-water habitats and raising water tables across the landscape. However, it has also caused loss of floodplain woodlands and reductions in the frequency, extent and duration with which floodplains are inundated, resulting in habitat degradation. The effects of such changes on floodplain fauna such as woodland birds are poorly understood. This paper explores the hypothesis that water availability at landscape scales influences woodland bird density. It examines the density of selected bird species in remnant floodplain woodlands of two contrasting regions within the same drought-affected catchment and tests two predictions: (1) Increased water availability in the landscape resulting from greater surrounding irrigation land use intensity will be associated with higher bird density in floodplain woodlands and (2) lower flood frequency within a site will be associated with lower bird density in floodplain woodlands. Two contrasting levels of the effect of irrigation land use intensity on woodland bird density were found: firstly, a broad-scale positive relationship between irrigation water availability and bird density at a regional scale and, secondly, a within-region negative effect of very high intensity irrigation land use upon bird density. We suggest that these effects are mediated through the influence of water and land use on both food and habitat availability, and research is needed focusing on links between flood regime, vegetation condition and bird density in the absence of intensive irrigation land use to ascertain the importance of flooding to woodland birds. (C) 2014 Commonwealth of Australia. Ecohydrology (C) 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Background: Habitat fragmentation and accompanying isolation effects are among the biggest threats to global biodiversity. The goal of restoring connectivity to offset these threats has gained even greater urgency under the looming spectre of climate change. While linear corridors have been the most commonly proposed solution to these issues, it has become increasingly recognised that structural connectivity exists in different forms with a variety of characteristics. We previously conducted a systematic review from 2008-2010 to collate and synthesise evidence regarding the relationship between these different types of structural connectivity and the actual movement of native Australian plants and animals (i.e., functional connectivity). Our previous review produced a number of management recommendations but also identified significant knowledge gaps. Given that empirical research into connectivity has become even more common since the original review and that it has been more than five years since the original literature searches, the time is ripe for an update of that review.Methods: We will update our previous systematic review by repeating a thorough search for both published and unpublished evidence on the effects of structural connectivity on animal and plant movement through heterogeneous landscapes. We will slightly broaden the scope of the original review by including data on semi-aquatic species as well as terrestrial ones. Studies will be included if they: 1) contain data on a terrestrial or semi-aquatic native Australian species; 2) have at least one study site that contains some form of structural connectivity between otherwise isolated patches of habitat; and 3) include data on movement of species through the connectivity or data that allow inference of movement (or the lack thereof). We will repeat the analyses carried out for the original review which used hierarchical linear modelling to assess the effects of numerous sources of heterogeneity (e.g., type of connectivity, width of connection, ecosystem type, taxonomic group, and many other characteristics of the species, habitat, and connectivity) on the amount of movement observed in a landscape. If increased sample sizes allow we will also carry out additional meta-analyses, which were not possible with the original dataset.

We live-trapped small mammals in the Brindabella Ranges west of Canberra, Australian Capital Territory from April 2009 until October 2011 to assess population recovery after an intense and widespread fire that occurred across the region in 2003. Three native mammals (agile antechinus, Antechinus agilis; dusky antechinus, Antechinus swainsonii; bush rat, Rattus fuscipes) were encountered. Trapping records and spool-and-line movement patterns suggested a strong association of these small mammals with moist gully vegetation that had survived the fire.

ABSTRACTForecast changes in irrigation practices and climate are likely to result in changes to surface and ground water availability for floodplain woodland remnants; however, the potential effects of such changes are poorly understood, with implications for management of woodland remnants for long‐term biodiversity persistence. This paper examines Eucalyptus largiflorens floodplain woodland structure and condition in two contrasting regions within the same catchment. It assesses the effects of varying levels of irrigation land use intensity surrounding woodland sites and of flood history within sites, testing the following propositions: (i) floodplain woodlands with greater intensity of surrounding irrigation land use will be in worse condition and have less structural complexity than other floodplain woodlands; (ii) floodplain woodlands with flood histories closer to ‘natural’ regimes will be in better condition and will have greater structural complexity than other floodplain woodlands. This paper demonstrates that where groundwater tables have fallen, rainfall is in deficit and surface flooding occurs less than once every two years, E. largiflorens trees will be in poor condition and are more likely to die. In the absence of sufficient rainfall and groundwater, more frequent flooding is required to maintain E. largiflorens in good condition (less crown death and greater crown density) than would normally be required. Irrigation land use intensity affects variables that create habitat complexity in woodlands, such as the presence of old and young trees, and the abundance of shrubs such as lignum and Sclerolaena. Flow regimes (particularly prior wetting frequency) affect both structure and condition. These results have implications for understanding and management of elements of biodiversity dependent upon the resources provided by floodplain woodlands. They emphasize the importance of maintaining healthy black box remnants in irrigation areas for biodiversity persistence, and suggest that rehabilitation of black box communities in the Lowbidgee using managed flooding could bring significant biodiversity benefits to the region. Copyright © 2012 CSIRO

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