Background Video games are increasingly recognised as promising tools for environmental education because of their potential to positively influence environmental attitudes and behaviours at scale. However, while effects of persuasive games appear consistent, effect sizes are generally small. In the specific context of ecogames, which are game about environmental issues, more experimental investigations of their effects are needed. Objectives This study investigated whether structured post-gameplay reflection amplifies the effects of the persuasive ecogame Gibbon: Beyond the Trees on pro-environmental attitudes and pro environmental behaviour. Besides, it sought to strengthen the empirical evidence on ecogames by using an experimental design, full-game playthroughs, and including an outcome measure that extends beyond self-reported attitudes. Methods After completing a full playthrough, participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions that differed in the level of structured post-gameplay reflection (none, moderate, or substantial). The study used a pre-test/post-test design with an optional one-week follow-up, to examine changes in palm-oil-related attitudes, wildlife value orientations, generalized environmental attitudes, and affective reactions to gameplay. Pro-environmental behaviour was assessed through voluntary donations to environmental NGOs. Results and Conclusions On average, this study observed improvements in pro-environmental attitudes post-gameplay, alongside affective changes aligned with the game’s narrative. Further, participants showed substantial behavioural responses, donating nearly half of their compensation (1.951,80€ in total) to environmental NGOs. Post-gameplay reflection did not significantly moderate attitudinal changes or donation amounts, suggesting that well-received commercial ecogames with strong alignment between narrative content and targeted outcomes can meaningfully support environmental education even without additional reflection activities.

Narratives have been proposed as a promising means to enhance engagement, motivation, and learning. However, their specific effects and mechanisms in gamified learning environments remain insufficiently explored. This pilot study aimed to investigate whether an additional, minimal narrative frame could improve cognitive and motivational outcomes in a learning task. We further examined whether exposure to the narrative would increase narrative transportation and flow and how these states correlate with learning performance and motivation. Fifty-six participants were included in the preliminary data analysis and were randomly assigned to one of four task versions, differing in gamification (gamified vs. non-gamified) and narrative framing (low vs. high). While no significant group differences were observed, positive associations were found between narrative transportation, flow, and both cognitive and motivational outcomes. Building on these findings, we designed an upcoming full-scale study to implement a visually and conceptually even richer narrative by integrating comic strips into the gamified learning task, aiming to enhance absorption, narrative transportation, and emotional engagement while maintaining low cognitive load.

Games hold promise as assessment tools, but the mechanics used must first be validated. Accordingly, we examined a novel implementation of an unbounded number line estimation task to assess students’ fraction comparison competence, laying the groundwork for designing a stealth assessment for math games. Sixty-eight Finnish 6th graders played a math game in which they estimated fraction magnitudes on an unbounded number line. Additionally, the students completed a non-game assessment based on a traditional fraction comparison task using the same fractions, as a part of a counterbalanced design. Overall, the results showed many similarities between the assessment conditions, including a typically observed distance effect, a similar correlation with general math achievement, and a moderate positive correlation between the conditions. However, comparison performance was lower in the game assessment. Further, the performance classifications based on whole number ordering consistent and inconsistent comparison tasks showed only a slight agreement between the game and non-game assessments. This suggests that the two approaches may capture different aspects of performance, with the game assessment potentially yielding misleading learning analytics and inappropriate pedagogical decisions. Also, motivational measures suggested challenges with the unbounded tasks, as students’ flow experience was significantly lower in the game condition. The results underscore the need to carefully evaluate theoretically informed assessment mechanics and highlight the importance of further research to establish the unbounded number line task as a valid measure of fraction comparison competence.

Leaderboards are frequently used in gamified learning; however, results from previous studies on the topic often turn out to be inconsistent. A reason might be the adaptive nature of leaderboards that provide different feedback regarding positions and trends over time. In this study, we systematically manipulated leaderboard-based feedback and investigated its effects on cognitive performance and intrinsic motivation. N = 427 participants were randomly assigned to one of five leaderboard conditions, which differed regarding the received fictitious feedback on initial position (higher/lower) and trend (upward/downward), plus a control condition without feedback. We found small but not substantial group differences in performance over time. However, we did find group differences in intrinsic motivation (highest motivation for higher position with upward trend leaderboardbased feedback). Exploratory analyses suggested no moderating effects of individual characteristics in learners' achievement motives. Results emphasize the need to consider the adaptive nature of leaderboards in research and practice. Education relevance statement: The study results show that leaderboard-based feedback can affect learners' intrinsic motivation. It appears especially motivating for learners to see themselves in higher positions and/or shifting upwards on a leaderboard. This is even the case when the feedback is fictitious and not based on actual performance. Additionally, results show that negative feedback can be more detrimental than no feedback at all. These results also have practical and educational implications, underlining the importance of considering how to frame leaderboard-based feedback for learners, depending on their performance, and that leaderboard-based feedback should be used with caution.

Background: Research on gamified learning typically focuses on assessing learning outcomes. The cognitive-affective processes occurring during learning, and their contributions to learning outcomes, remain comparatively understudied. However, illuminating these processes is essential for optimising digital gamified learning interventions. Objective: This experimental study evaluates the added value of incorporating process alongside conventional outcome measures, to better understand how gamification may affect learning. Methods: A total of 121 participants were randomly assigned to a gamified or a non-gamified version of an otherwise equivalent associative learning task. Biometric process measures (heart rate, electrodermal activity, gaze behaviour) were recorded throughout the task. Situated interest and self-efficacy were assessed repeatedly via self-report, alongside post-task cognitive and motivational outcomes. Differences between conditions were quantitatively analysed for both process and outcome measures. Results and Conclusions: In this laboratory setting, motivational processes and outcomes were surprisingly similar across conditions. In contrast, cognitive process measures revealed a slower learning progress with gamified than non-gamified learning. This was reflected also in biometric process features revealing the extraneous processing demands induced by game design elements. Most importantly, the informativeness of specific biometric features varied by task stage, indicating stage-dependent relevance of different cognitive demands (e.g., encoding, recalling, sustained attention). These findings suggest that gamification’s influence on learning processes is contingent on the task’s cognitive and perceptual affordances and their temporal distribution, a consideration central for the design of individualised, real-time adaptive digital learning systems.

Gamification has become a prominent approach in educational research and practice, yet its effectiveness remains inconsistent and insufficiently understood. This Special Issue addresses key gaps by advancing a more differentiated perspective on gamified learning, focusing on heterogeneity in design, adaptivity, and individual learner differences. The Special Issue is structured around three interconnected themes: personalized gamification, competition-based gamification with leaderboards, and gamification in young learners. Across these areas, the studies highlight that effects of gamification are context-dependent and often driven by complex interactions between design features and learner characteristics. While personalization offers promising opportunities, its implementation remains challenging and requires grounding in theories. Leaderboards, despite their popularity, emerge as potentially problematic for certain learners. Research on young learners underscores the importance of developmental and contextual considerations. Overall, the contributions emphasize the need for rigorous, theory-driven research that moves beyond average effects toward understanding for whom and under which conditions gamification works.

Motivation is crucial for successful learning. Based on the Expectancy-Value Theory, this study investigated whether gamification enhances specific motivational constructs, particularly utility value, and how these relate to cognitive learning outcomes. We hypothesized that a gamified associative learning task would increase motivational aspects compared to a non-gamified version, and that higher motivation would predict better learning outcomes in adult learners. Contrary to our hypothesis, no significant group mean differences in motivation emerged. However, regression analyses revealed that self-concept and subcomponents of utility value significantly predicted cognitive learning outcomes. The minimal gamification elements and limited real-world relevance of the highly controlled learning task may partly explain the lack of motivational effects. We suggest future research explore gamification designs with stronger narrative connections, emphasizing real-life relevance or enhanced narrative transportation, and use more nuanced, context-sensitive measures of utility value to capture present-oriented utility.

Digital learning games are increasingly used in school contexts; however, there is still a lack of child-appropriate instruments that systematically capture both game-related and learning-related experiences. In this paper, we present the theory-driven development and initial qualitative examination of the Digital Game-Based Learning Experience Questionnaire (DGBLXQ), a modular instrument. It is designed to assess subjective player and learning experiences of children approximately between six and ten years of age, corresponding to primary school age in the German education system, in digital learning games. The development of the DGBLXQ is grounded in Situated Expectancy-Value Theory as an overarching theoretical framework and integrates established concepts from player experience research as well as learning and motivation research. The questionnaire follows a modular structure and comprises two components: GameX, capturing game-related experiences based on the established Player Experience Inventory, and LearnX, a novel scale to capture learning-related experiences during gameplay. To support item development and iterative refinement, we employed qualitative and exploratory methods, including cognitive interviews with children and a card-sorting procedure with experts, to examine item comprehensibility, semantic clarity, and situational appropriateness from children’s perspectives. The qualitative findings indicate that children can generally articulate game-related experiences in a consistent and experience-near manner, whereas learning-related experiences require stronger contextual grounding and linguistic concreteness. Overall, the results highlight the importance of a theory-driven yet child-centered approach to questionnaire development in digital game-based learning contexts. The DGBLXQ thus provides a sound foundation for subsequent quantitative analyses and validation studies.

Computational thinking (CT), as an overarching problem-solving skill, and creativity, as a drive for innovation are both considered essential 21st-century skills and recommended to be acquired early on in education. However, tools to assess their relationship still remain limited. This pilot study (N = 125) presents the development and piloting of a new gamified assessment tool, the Computational Creativity and Computational Thinking test (CCCT), for primary school children. Results show that the CCCT is feasible to measure domain-specific creativity in the context of CT and provide initial insights into their relationship. Our findings support the CCCT as a promising instrument for holistically assessing the complex and synergistic relationship between CT and creativity.

Graphs are powerful tools for conveying information, yet specific design choices may, intentionally or unintentionally, lead to misinterpretations and mislead readers. We examined the learning effects of MediaWatch, a digital graph-reading game designed to teach students how to interpret misleading graphs. Specifically, we examined how feedback that visually “highlights” (i.e., signaling) misleading elements of graphs influences students’ skills in interpreting misleading graphs. In this between-subjects study, secondary school students (N = 201) were assigned to either a signaling condition or a no-signaling condition. Graph comprehension was assessed using pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests and analyzed with linear mixed-effects models. Results showed that students’ ability to interpret graphs with a reversed x-axis improved over time, but this improvement was not influenced by the presence of signaling in feedback. Moreover, the improvement was sustained at the delayed post-test. In contrast, students did not improve in interpreting truncated y-axis graphs over time, regardless of feedback type. Overall, the signaling feedback did not yield differential effects on performance for either type of examined misleading graph. Future research should explore how signaling can be more effectively implemented with other instructional supports within the game to strengthen students’ resistance to different types of graph manipulations. Moreover, the findings align with the observation that the truncation effect is particularly persistent.

While evidence accumulates that gamified learning has small to moderate positive overall effects on learning outcomes, these effects may considerably depend on the exact conditions in which learning occurs. This study investigated the effect of embedding a gamified learning task within a homework assignment in a university course on cognitive, motivational, and affective outcomes (in contrast to online and laboratory settings unrelated to specific educational contexts investigated in earlier studies). Fifty students, enrolled in a basic statistics course, completed either a gamified or an equivalent, non-gamified memory task as a homework assignment. Their outcomes were compared with 97 participants not enrolled in the course (overall: n = 147). We found that gamified learning had small to medium significant effects on motivation (d 0.4–0.6), regardless of enrollment in the course. Effects on affective and cognitive learning outcomes were not significant, ranging from negligible to small effect sizes (d ≤ 0.25). Juxtaposing our present results with earlier results suggests that, beyond the setting itself, additional contextual features may change the motivational effectiveness of gamified learning in the present, homework assignment setting compared to earlier extra-curricular (online and laboratory) settings. Further research on potential boundary conditions is required.

To ensure learning efficiency in game-based learning (GBL), learners must regulate cognitive, affective, metacognitive and motivational (CAMM) processes, collectively known as self-regulated learning (SRL). SRL is dynamic and non-linear, characterized by regulatory patterns and CAMM interactions that lead to macro-level SRL behaviours. In this paper, we explore SRL as a complex system by analysing patterns and interactions among CAMM processes during GBL and examine their relation to learning outcomes. Thirty-seven (n = 37) healthy adults used Antidote COVID-19, a GBL environment designed to increase emotional engagement and biology knowledge. To define momentary CAMM processes, subjective measures of cognitive, affective and metacognitive states via think- and emote-alouds were synchronized with two physiological correlates of motivation: intensity of facial expressions (arousal) and skin conductance response. Sequence analysis and recurrence quantification defined the regularity of patterns within CAMM components, and transfer entropy estimated concurrent interactions between CAMM components. Our results indicated a quadratic relationship between the turbulence (a measure of regularity) of cognitive, affective and metacognitive (CAM) state transitions (via think- and emote-aloud methods) provided the best fit, explaining 31% of variability in learning. This highlights an optimal balance between stability and flexibility in CAM state transitions that were beneficial for learning. However, physiological correlates of motivation were not predictive regarding learning performance. This lack of predictive capability of the considered measures may reflect their limitations in capturing nuanced motivation dynamics relevant to learning or suggest that motivation's role in learning is predominantly mediated through cognitive and metacognitive engagement rather than directly influencing outcomes.Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Game-based learning (GBL) is a promising intervention for improving science knowledge, but it places high self-regulatory demands on learners. Learners must manage cognitive, affective, motivational and metacognitive (CAMM) processes to ensure GBL efficiency; otherwise known as self-regulated learning (SRL). Prior research has shown that CAMM processes are each important for learning in games, but they are often studied in isolation rather than as interacting processes over time. What this paper adds This study conceptualizes SRL in GBL as a complex system utilizing mixed multimodal data, emphasizing patterns and interactions among CAMM processes rather than static averages. Results show that learning is maximized when learners exhibit an optimal balance between stability and flexibility in their cognitive, affective and metacognitive state transitions, neither overly rigid nor overly random regulation patterns. Cognitive, affective and metacognitive processes (assessed via think-/emote-alouds) were strongly related to learning gain, whereas physiological indicators of motivation alone were not predictive. Implications for practice and/or policy Designers of GBL environments should support adaptive regulation, encouraging learners to flexibly shift SRL strategies and emotions while maintaining coherence in their learning process. Educators and researchers should be cautious about relying solely on physiological measures (eg, arousal) for assessing learning effectiveness, as these may not capture meaningful regulatory dynamics. Policies and evaluation frameworks for educational games should prioritize tools and analytics that capture process-level SRL patterns over time, rather than focusing exclusively on outcomes or isolated behavioural indicators.

Ecogames – games that address environmental topics – are an innovative and engaging method for fostering environmental education, which is urgently needed to respond effectively to climate change. However, educators and researchers are challenged by the task of selecting and investigating appropriate games from the vast and ever-growing assortment available. The rapid pace and large volume of the video game market complicate the selection process for classroom activities or research, such as media comparison studies. This study introduces a novel methodology that employs natural language processing techniques to identify and preselect ecogames that feature climate change-related content to varying degrees. By analyzing over 186,000 player-generated reviews on the Steam gaming platform through dictionary-based analysis and climate change detection classification, the methodology effectively distinguishes ecogames from action/adventure games and demonstrates varying levels of climate change-related content across different game categories. It also highlights that not all ecogames feature discussion on environmental matters equally, underscoring the need for careful game selection. Additionally, this approach has uncovered new ecogame candidates among a random selection of action/adventure games. Relying solely on the lexical features of the texts investigated, this study's approach is quick and scalable in its implementation and represents a data-driven way of preselecting ecogames based on publicly available text data. Combining the text analyses with other game metrics such as playtime, game popularity and age rating, the study recognizes Beecarbonize, Alba: A Wildlife Adventure and Gibbon: Beyond the Trees as notable candidates for in-depth research and potential educational use in the classroom.

The enhancement of humans' core cognitive abilities-such as intelligence-is a frequently debated topic in scientific and public discourse. Different enhancement methods such as cognitive trainings, smart drugs, and brain stimulation techniques have been proposed and tested to enhance human's cognition. In this narrative review, we summarize the main psychological and neuroscientific findings regarding those cognitive enhancement methods. We thereby distinguish passive (e.g., smart drugs) and active enhancement methods (e.g., working memory training)-which require different levels of agency. While for both forms of enhancement there is no (or only little) empirical evidence on their effectiveness to improve overall cognitive abilities, passive methods entail severe risks. Thus, we criticize promoting an overly optimistic view on especially passive enhancement. Furthermore, we highlight which individuals might be willing to enhance themselves, related motivational aspects of cognitive enhancement, and ethical considerations thereof. To raise awareness for the (in)effectiveness and risks of passive and active enhancement, we propose a category framework that distinguishes cognitive enhancement from clinical methods to treat disorders or diagnosed deficits and introduces important dimensions thereof. Finally, we present open questions for psychological and neuroscientific research which should become part of enhancement debates. Taken together, our narrative review provides a broad overview and critical assessment of enhancement-related topics such as effectiveness and risks of enhancement methods, motivational aspects to apply enhancement, and societal implications of cognitive enhancement.

Games offer a unique way to study human behavior by extending traditional lab-based research into more complex, naturalistic, yet highly controllable settings. A key feature of games is their potential to reframe failure as a learning opportunity, supposedly leading to persistent engagement and competence. This study empirically tested this idea by developing a platformer game in two versions: one with regular checkpoints (resulting in less negative consequences of failure) and one without (resulting in more negative consequences of failure, i.e., having to restart the level). Among 172 participants, those randomly assigned to the checkpoint condition completed more levels of the game on average, but were less committed to individual reward opportunities within each level. Importantly, they also reported significantly lower frustration and higher perceived competence, an essential predictor of intrinsic motivation, compared to participants in the condition without checkpoints. Subjective frustration of the basic need for competence partially mediated game-induced frustration, suggesting that reducing negative consequences of failure facilitates reframing failure as a learning opportunity. These findings illustrate how game design can reduce frustration and enhance motivation and engagement.

Background The potential of adaptive feedback in digital educational games remains largely unexplored. Fractions are a suitable topic for investigating the effectiveness of adaptive feedback, as the complexity of this domain highlights the need for adequate feedback. Objectives This study examines the effectiveness of explanatory adaptive feedback in a digital educational game to address two particular misconceptions regarding fractions (i.e., Natural Number Bias and Unit of Reference). Methods A total of 197 4th graders were randomly assigned to two different conditions, each playing a different version of a digital educational game: one with corrective feedback and one with explanatory adaptive feedback. During gameplay, we collected log data of students' item-wise correctness and misconception errors. Results Explanatory item response analyses indicated that correctness improved in both game versions, with a more pronounced increase for the game with explanatory adaptive feedback compared to the game with corrective feedback. However, no decrease in misconception errors was observed in either game version. Moreover, neither the type of misconception nor students' prior fraction knowledge were moderating factors. These results suggest that adaptive feedback can support students in learning fractions; however, to reduce misconception errors concrete feedback should be optimised.

There is a growing interest in developing gamified learning solutions to address educational challenges. However, learning is highly influenced by the conditions in which it takes place (e.g., does gamified learning in a laboratory setting replicate the outcomes of gamified learning online at home?). Hence, it is crucial to understand the boundary conditions of different learning contexts to effectively implement gamified interventions that provide optimal learner support. This work contributes to such an understanding by assessing how general contextual aspects of three studies on gamified learning influence cognitive learning and motivational outcomes. Therefore, we re-examined the results of two earlier published online studies (Study 1: n=285; Study 2: n=61) and compared the results to a recently conducted laboratory study (Study 3: n=121), all of which employed the same associative learning task. Comparing results through a Bayesian lens, we find that motivational outcomes induced by gamification differ substantially between contexts. In contrast, cognitive learning outcomes seem comparatively robust across different contextual factors, with some indication of subtle influences in agreement with cognitive learning theories. Implications are discussed for future empirical research on learning, highlighting how a better understanding of boundary conditions of gamified learning interventions could open perspectives for context-aware educational interventions.