Importance of the work: Shrimp oil enriched with astaxanthin, derived from black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798) shells, possesses strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Its application as a natural preservative could enhance the quality and shelf life of fish-based products, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic additives. Objectives: To evaluate the effects of astaxanthin-rich shrimp oil on antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, as well as its influence on the physicochemical, textural, sensory and microbiological properties of Notopterus chitala (Hamilton, 1822) fish balls during refrigerated storage. Materials and Methods: Shrimp oil was extracted from shrimp shells and analyzed for astaxanthin content and antioxidant activity (IC50). The oil was incorporated into fish ball formulations at concentrations of 0–3.5%. Physicochemical parameters (pH, peroxide value, TBARS, sulfhydryl content), texture (gel strength, water-holding capacity), color, sensory attributes and microbial stability (total viable count) were monitored over 12 days of chilled storage. Results: The shrimp oil contained 142 µg/g astaxanthin and demonstrated strong radicalscavenging activity (half maximal inhibitory concentration = 25.12 µg/mL) and antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Incorporation at 2.0–2.5% improved the gel strength, water-holding capacity and sensory acceptability. During storage, 2.5–3.5% supplementation effectively reduced pH decline, lipid and protein oxidation and microbial growth, showing preservative effects comparable to the synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene. Main finding: Astaxanthin-enriched shrimp oil, effectively enhanced the oxidative stability, inhibited microbial growth and maintained the physicochemical, textural and sensory qualities of N. chitala fish balls during refrigerated storage. At optimal incorporation levels, the preservative performance of the astaxanthin-enriched shrimp oil was comparable to that of synthetic antioxidants, highlighting its potential as a natural and sustainable alternative for seafood preservation.

This study investigated a synergistic deep eutectic solvent (DES)–ethanol system combined with sequential shaking and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to maximize recovery of bioactive compounds from Diospyros kaki peel. Among the tested DES formulations, choline chloride–lactic acid (DES01) achieved the highest extraction of total phenolics (TPC, 26.67 mg GAE/g DW) and total flavonoids (TFC, 122.31 mg QE/g DW), whereas 60

The rhizomes of Curculigo orchioides contain diverse phytochemicals associated with antioxidant and antidiabetic activities; however, efficient extraction of these compounds remains a challenge. In this study, hydrothermal pretreatment was applied prior to microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) to improve the release of intracellular metabolites from plant tissues. The extraction parameters, including solvent-to-solid ratio, microwave power, and extraction time, were optimized using response surface methodology based on a Box–Behnken experimental design with total phenolic content (TPC) and total saponin content (TSC) as response variables. The optimized MAE conditions were identified at approximately 40 mL/g, 300 W, and 30 min, resulting in TPC and TSC values of 73.15 mg GAE g⁻¹ and 55.61 mg AE g⁻¹, respectively. Extracts obtained under these conditions showed strong radical-scavenging activity in DPPH and ABTS assays together with considerable α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Microscopic observations indicated that pretreatment combined with microwave irradiation markedly disrupted the plant cellular matrix, which may facilitate the release of bioactive constituents. Comprehensive metabolite profiling using LC–MS/MS followed by GNPS-based molecular networking allowed the tentative annotation of 44 metabolites, including phenolic acids, phenolic glycosides, fatty acid derivatives, amino acid-related compounds, and several curculigoside-type metabolites commonly reported in C. orchioides . These results provide insight into the phytochemical composition of the extract and demonstrate the effectiveness of pretreatment-assisted MAE for recovering bioactive compounds from this medicinal plant.

A green and efficient method was developed for extracting triterpenoids from Abelmoschus sagittifolius roots using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) combined with a choline chloride–citric acid-based deep eutectic solvent (DES). Optimization by response surface methodology identified optimal conditions (365 W, 46 min, 40 mL/g), yielding 39.8 mg/g of triterpenoids, in close agreement with the predicted value (39.5 mg/g). This yield was significantly higher than those obtained by ethanol-based MAE (32.69 mg/g) and Soxhlet extraction (28.14 mg/g). SEM analysis revealed marked cell wall disruption in DES–MAE-treated samples. The extract exhibited strong antioxidant activity (84.56% DPPH and 96.67% ABTS at 0.55 mg/mL) and notable tyrosinase inhibition (IC₅₀ ≈ 0.17 mg/mL), outperforming conventional extracts. GC–MS analysis identified 18 bioactive compounds, predominantly triterpenoids. Overall, DES–MAE represents a sustainable approach for producing triterpenoid-rich extracts for food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications.

Vỏ ba khía (Sesarma mederi) là sản phẩm phụ của quá trình sản xuất mắm ba khía, chứa hàm lượng khoáng và protein cao, cần được xử lý thích hợp để thu nhận chitin tinh khiết. Nghiên cứu này đánh giá hiệu quả của việc sử dụng acid clohydric (HCl) trong quá trình khử khoáng nhằm tối ưu hóa quy trình thu nhận chitin. Kết quả cho thấy, điều kiện tối ưu để loại bỏ khoáng chất là sử dụng dung dịch HCl 5% với tỷ lệ nguyên liệu/dung môi 1:30 (w/v), ở nhiệt độ 60 °C trong 3 giờ. Sau quá trình khử khoáng, mẫu được xử lý tiếp bằng dung dịch NaOH để loại bỏ protein, thu được chế phẩm chitin có hàm lượng khoáng còn lại dưới 1,0% và độ tinh khiết khoảng 97,66%. Chitin sau khi thu nhận được phân tích bằng các phương pháp phổ hồng ngoại biến đổi Fourier (FTIR), nhiễu xạ tia X (XRD) và hiển vi điện tử quét (SEM), cho thấy hiệu quả cao trong việc loại bỏ khoáng và protein. Kết quả cũng xác nhận rằng sản phẩm thu nhận chủ yếu tồn tại dưới dạng α-chitin. Nghiên cứu này khẳng định tiềm năng của phương pháp sử dụng dung môi truyền thống trong trích ly chitin từ vỏ ba khía, góp phần nâng cao giá trị của phế phẩm thủy sản và mở ra hướng ứng dụng trong các lĩnh vực công nghiệp và sinh học.

Nghiên cứu đánh giá tác động của dung môi eutectic sâu (DES) chứa astaxanthin khi bổ sung vào màng chitosan, nhằm cải thiện tính chất vật liệu cho ứng dụng bảo quản thực phẩm. Kết quả cho thấy màng chitosan chứa DES và astaxanthin có độ bền kéo giảm từ 5,53 MPa xuống 4,13 MPa nhưng độ giãn dài khi đứt tăng từ 45,65% lên 54,45%, giúp màng linh hoạt hơn. Độ thấm hơi nước (WVP) tăng gấp đôi so với màng chitosan-glycerol, phù hợp cho bảo quản rau củ và trái cây tươi nhờ kiểm soát trao đổi khí, hạn chế đọng hơi nước và giảm nguy cơ hư hỏng. Phân tích FTIR xác nhận sự hình thành liên kết hydro bền vững giữa chitosan, DES và astaxanthin, góp phần ổn định cấu trúc màng; hình ảnh SEM cho thấy bề mặt đồng nhất hơn, trong khi AFM phản ánh sự thay đổi vi cấu trúc giúp tăng độ ổn định. Ngoài ra, màng chitosan – DES thể hiện khả năng kháng oxy hóa cao gấp 15 lần theo ABTS và 5 lần theo DPPH đối với màng chitosan hay màng chitosan – glycerol. Bên cạnh đó, màng chitosan – DES cũng có khả năng kháng khuẩn mạnh, ức chế Staphylococcus aureus và Salmonella typhimurium, có thể nhờ khả năng khuếch tán cao hơn của astaxanthin trong mạng lưới polymer. Những đặc tính này cho thấy tiềm năng lớn của DES – astaxanthin trong màng chitosan cho bao bì thông minh, giúp kéo dài thời gian bảo quản thực phẩm và kiểm soát vi sinh.

Vỏ tôm sú Penaeus monodon thường được loại bỏ trong quá trình chế biến tôm. Đây là một loại phụ phẩm chiếm tỷ lệ lớn trong ngành công nghiệp chế biến thủy sản, đặc biệt là tôm sú - một loài tôm được nuôi phổ biến ở Việt Nam. Vỏ tôm sú chứa lipid và astaxanthin. Tuy nhiên, việc chiết xuất lipid và astaxanthin từ vỏ tôm rất khó khăn do cấu trúc thành tế bào cứng và phức tạp. Nghiên cứu này đã khảo sát việc sử dụng hệ dung môi eutectic sâu (Deep eutectic solvent (DES)) để trích ly lipid và astaxanthin từ vỏ tôm sú. Dung môi DES, chứa choline chloride (ChCl) và acid citric (CA) đã được thử nghiệm và so sánh hiệu quả trích ly lipid và astaxanthin với các dung môi truyền thống (hexane và ethanol). Kết quả cho thấy hiệu quả trích ly dầu và astaxanthin từ DES thấp hơn so với dung môi truyền thống, nhưng khi thêm ethanol vào DES làm đồng dung môi, hiệu suất chiết xuất đã được cải thiện đáng kể. Khi kết hợp ChCl/CA với 45% ethanol đã đạt được nồng độ lipid cao nhất (5,71g/100g) và astaxanthin (34,15µg/g), cao hơn so với ethanol (5,12g/100g và 31,56µg/g) và hexane (5,62g/100g và 33,47µg/g). Các chiết xuất từ tôm giàu acid béo không bão hòa đa (như acid linoleic, α-linolenic, EPA và DHA) và astaxanthin với khả năng chống oxy hóa mạnh.

The black tiger shrimp ( Penaeus monodon ) shell, a by‐product of shrimp processing, is a valuable natural source of oil and astaxanthin (AXT). However, extracting these from the shell is difficult due to its tough cell walls. This study examined the use of deep eutectic systems (DESs) to extract oil and AXT from black tiger shrimp shells. Three DESs (choline chloride/glycerol, choline chloride/citric acid, and choline chloride/lactic acid) were tested, and their extraction efficiencies were compared with those of traditional solvents (hexane, ethanol, and acetone). Results indicated that the extraction efficiency of oil and AXT from DESs was lower than that of traditional solvents, but when ethanol was added to the DES as a co‐solvent, it significantly improved the yield. Specifically, combining choline chloride/lactic acid with 45% ethanol resulted in the highest concentrations of oil (6.42/100 g) and AXT (39.10 μg/g), surpassing ethanol (5.12/100 g and 31.56 μg/g) or hexane (5.62/100 g and 33.47 μg/g), and acetone (4.46/100 g and 28.59 μg/g). The shrimp extracts were rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e., linoleic acid, α‐linolenic acid, EPA, and DHA) and AXT with potent antioxidant properties.

Trong bối cảnh ngày càng gia tăng nhu cầu cải thiện khả năng bảo vệ hoạt chất của các màng bao bọc thực phẩm, nghiên cứu này nhằm phát triển một hệ màng chitosan kết hợp với hệ dung môi eutectic sâu (DES) chứa astaxanthin, để nâng cao hiệu quả bảo quản thực phẩm, đặc biệt là tôm lột vỏ. Mục tiêu của nghiên cứu là so sánh màng chitosan nguyên chất và màng tích hợp DES-astaxanthin, nhằm đánh giá tác động của hệ này đối với đặc tính lý – hóa, cơ học và hiệu quả bảo quản. Kết quả cho thấy, màng DES-astaxanthin duy trì độ dẻo tốt hơn (EAB giảm từ 52,37% xuống 32,14% so với 39,17% xuống 27,64% ở màng chitosan thuần) và giữ ổn định cấu trúc vật lý cũng như tính chất cơ học trong suốt 10 ngày bảo quản lạnh. Cùng với đó, màng này giúp giảm mất khối lượng tôm (3,76% so với 6,2% ở màng chitosan và 8,94% ở mẫu đối chứng), duy trì pH ổn định và giảm sự hình thành base bay hơi (TVB-N), đồng thời giảm oxy hóa lipid (chỉ số TBARS giảm 60% so với mẫu đối chứng). Các chỉ số cảm quan như màu sắc tôm (WI) được bảo vệ tốt hơn, và sự phát triển của vi sinh vật (TVC) cũng bị ức chế mạnh mẽ trong mẫu phủ màng DES-astaxanthin. Quá trình giải phóng astaxanthin từ màng được mô phỏng theo hai mô hình động học, trong đó mô hình bậc 2 phản ánh tốt hơn quá trình giải phóng trong suốt thời gian bảo quản. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy, màng DES-chitosan chứa astaxanthin có tiềm năng cao trong ứng dụng bao bì bảo quản lạnh, nhưng cần được kiểm chứng thêm trong thực tế thực phẩm để khẳng định hiệu quả bảo quản toàn diện.

Astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant with significant health benefits, is abundant and present in Penaeus monodon shells. However, its efficient extraction remains a challenge due to the complexity of its matrix. This study aims to optimize a sustainable and high-efficiency microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) process using deep eutectic solvents (DES) to enhance astaxanthin yield and bioactivity. A systematic evaluation of various DES compositions identified choline chloride-lactic acid (1:2 molar ratio) with 15

This study investigates the enhancement of chitosan-based films by incorporating polyethylene glycol (PEG), deep eutectic solvents (DES), and a DES formulation containing astaxanthin extracted from shrimp shells (DES-Ast). The films were evaluated for visual, structural, mechanical, and functional properties. Neat chitosan films (Ch) exhibited brittleness, high crystallinity (crystallinity index - CrI ∼77.78 %), and rough surfaces (root mean square roughness - Rq = 27.82 nm). The incorporation of PEG and DES reduced surface roughness and crystallinity, with DES demonstrating a stronger plasticizing effect. The optimal formulation, DES-Ast-Ch (1,5, 14.89 μg/g astaxanthin), improved film structure (Rq = 2.63 nm; CrI ∼50.00 %) and mechanical properties, including tensile strength (TS: 3.80 MPa) and elongation at break (EAB: 52.33 %). Antioxidant capacity was significantly enhanced, with ABTS and DPPH values reaching 3.16 and 4.90 μmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/mL, respectively. The DES-Ast-Ch films exhibited antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Gram-negative), and Candida albicans (yeast), with inhibition zones up to 15.42 mm and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values as low as 1.35 μL/mL for S. typhimurium. In shrimp preservation tests, DES-Ast-Ch coatings (1,5) reduced weight loss (3.76 %), microbial load (4.3 log CFU/g), and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N - 22.76 mg/100 g). These results suggest that DES-Ast-Ch films are promising candidates for sustainable food packaging, particularly for perishable products like seafood, where enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial properties are crucial for maintaining freshness and safety.

The study aimed to enhance the extraction of astaxanthin (ASX) from black tiger shrimp shells by combining Deep eutectic solvent (DES) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UADE). The DES used in the research consisted of choline chloride (Ch) and lactic acid (LA) in a 1:2 M ratio with 20% water. Response surface methodology (RSM) utilizing a Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to optimize the UADE conditions, considering ultrasound power (200-400 W), ethanol concentration in the DES (5-65 %), and extraction time (5-45 min). The optimal UADE parameters identified by BBD were 330 W ultrasound power, 35% ethanol content, and 33 min of extraction, resulting in the highest ASX content of 47.42 mu g/g, closely matching the predicted value of 48.65 mu g/ g. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed structural alterations in samples treated with DES-based UAE, setting it apart from soxhlet extraction, maceration, and ethanol-based DES extraction. The outcomes indicated that UADE outperformed traditional extraction methods like soxhlet extraction, maceration, and ultrasound-assisted ethanol extraction (UAET) regarding ASX yield and antioxidant activity, while also needing shorter extraction durations. These results underscore UADE as a productive and eco-friendly approach for extracting ASX from shrimp shells.

The aim of this study was to extract polysaccharides from Abelmoschus sagittifolius using the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method. Three independent variables, including extraction temperature, microwave power, and microwave time, were chosen for investigation through single-factor experiments. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to optimize the extraction conditions. The study found that the optimal conditions for polysaccharide extraction were a temperature of 63 degrees C, a microwave power of 650 W, and a duration of 58 min. The polysaccharide yield under these conditions was 29.8 g/100 g, closely matching the experimental yield of 30.1 g/100 g. This yield was approximately 1.15 times higher than the yield achieved through conventional extraction methods (heat reflux extraction (HE) method). The study also demonstrated that polysaccharides extracted using the MAE method exhibited improved antioxidant capacity and enzyme inhibition and displayed significant inhibitory effects on HepG2 cells compared to the conventional extraction method. Moreover, the polysaccharides obtained from the optimized MAE process had a lower molecular weight and higher polydispersity than the HE method. These findings indicate that MAE is a promising, efficient, and environmentally friendly technology for extracting polysaccharides from A. sagittifolius.

Rose myrtle fruits contain high levels of phenolics and other bioactive compounds. To increase the extraction efficiency of phenolic compounds, ultrasound-assisted- deep eutectic solvents (DESs) was proposed. First of all, six different DESs were used in this research and compared with traditional solvents (ethanol, methanol, and water), and the most suitable solvents for extracting phenolic compounds from rose myrtle fruits was choline chloride: urea (molar ratio of 1:2). Then, the Box–Behnken design was used to find the optimal extraction conditions (ultrasonic power (X1), solid to liquid ratio (X2), and extraction time (X3)) for the achievement of high total phenolic contents (TPC) and antioxidant activity (IC50). The results showed that the optimum ultrasound assisted-DES extraction parameters to achieve the highest TPC and antioxidant activity (IC50) (85.19 mgGAE/g fresh fruit and 2.31 mg/g, respectively) were X1 of 233 W, X2 of 440 mg/ml, and X3 of 55 min. Compared with traditional maceration extraction, ultrasound-assisted-DES has a higher TPC and antioxidant activity (IC50) and shorter extraction time. Scanning electron microscopy images (SEM) revealed that the dissolution of bioactive components was enhanced from the disrupted cells after ultrasound-assisted-DES extraction. Consequently, the combination of ultrasound-assisted-DESs extraction provide an excellent extraction method for efficient extraction of bioactive components of rose myrtle fruit.

The leaves of Rubus alceaefolius Poir primarily consist of phenolic and triterpenoid compounds, which possess a variety of biological activities beneficial to human health. This research aimed to explore the impact of enzyme-assisted extraction conditions on the recovery of triterpenoid and phenolic compounds from Rubus alceaefolius Poir leaves. Factors considered in the enzymatic treatment process with Viscozyme L cellulase included the solid-to-water ratio (1:15-1:45 w/v), enzyme concentration (0.5-3.5%), temperature (40-60 °C), and extraction duration (30-180 min). The results suggested that the optimal conditions for the enzymatic extraction of triterpenoid and phenolic compounds were a 2.5% enzyme concentration, a 1:35 (w/v) solid-to-solvent ratio, an incubation temperature of 50 °C, and an extraction time of 120 minutes. Under these conditions, the highest amounts of total triterpenoids and phenolics obtained were 231.45 mg UA/g and 9.13 mg GAE/g, respectively. GC-MS analysis identified 17 constituents that potentially contribute to antioxidant potency. Furthermore, the findings showed that the enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) technique was more efficient in extracting total phenolics and triterpenoids compared to conventional maceration extraction.

Chitin, a natural biomass resource, has shown great promise for a wide range of applications because of its high bioactivity. This study evaluated the effectiveness of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) mixed with citric acid as a method for extracting chitin from the shells of giant tiger prawn shrimps (Penaeus monodon). The purity and physicochemical properties of the extracted chitin were compared with those obtained using the traditional chemical extraction method and commercial chitin. The results showed that the highest chitin purity (99.22%) was achieved when choline chloride-glycerol (ChCl–Gl) was used in a 1:2 molar ratio with a citric acid content of 5% w/v (CG2-5%). Additionally, the extracted chitin had a molecular weight of 3.75 × 105 Da and a crystallinity index of 81.34%, which was slightly higher than that of chitin extracted using the conventional method (3.24 × 105 Da and 73.59%). However, there was no significant difference between chitin extracted by CG2-5% and commercial chitin. This suggests that the structure of the biopolymer remained intact following the CG2-5% extraction process. The α-chitins in tiger prawn shrimp shells, as confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD), are analogous to commercial shrimp chitin. These results, achieved without employing potentially harmful chemicals, demonstrate that CG2-5% can efficiently enhance chitin extraction from diverse raw biomass sources without jeopardizing the polymer's structural stability.

Mục tiêu của nghiên cứu này là nghiên cứu ảnh hưởng của sự hỗ trợ sóng siêu âm đến quá trích ly để thu hồi triterpenoids và hoạt tính kháng oxy hóa của rễ sâm cau C. orchioides sử dụng phương pháp bề mặt đáp ứng (RSM). Những thông số của quá trình trích ly có sự hỗ trợ của siêu âm (UAE) trong nghiên cứu đã được khảo sát gồm nhiệt độ trích ly (30 - 60°C), công suất siêu âm (150 - 350 W), và thời gian siêu âm (5 - 45 phút). Mô hình bề mặt bậc hai đã được thiết lập và xử lý thống kê được sử dụng để đánh giá mô hình. Kết quả cho thấy hiệu suất thu nhận triterpenoids và hoạt tính kháng oxy hóa (khả năng bắt gốc tự do ABTS) bị ảnh hưởng đáng kể bởi nhiệt độ và thời gian (p<0.05). Điều kiện tối ưu cho quá trình thu hồi triterpenoids và ABTS là nhiệt độ 50,63°C, công suất 322,5W và thời gian siêu âm 44,9 phút. Tại điều kiện này, kết quả thực nghiệm tương tự với kết quả dự đoán trên mô hình. So với phương pháp trích ly truyền thống thì phương pháp UAE cho giá trị hàm lượng triterpenoid và ABTS cao hơn. Khi phân tích GC-MS, dịch chiết có 6 hợp chất có khả năng kháng oxy hóa. Điều này có thể cho thấy phương pháp UAE là một phương pháp đầy hứa hẹn, hiệu quả và kỹ thuật xanh để trích ly các hợp chất có hoạt tính sinh học từ rễ sâm cau C. orchioides.

This research aims to optimize ethanol-modified supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO2) conditions for extracting triterpenoids from G. lucidum using a response surface methodology (RSM). A central composite face-centered design (CCF) was employed to investigate the influences of three independent variables, including ethanol concentration in SC-CO2 (X1), extraction pressure (X2), and temperature (X3) on the response, triterpenoid content (Y). The results showed that the optimal RSM-based SC-CO2 conditions were 380 bar, 7%v/v, and 60 degrees C, achieving the maximum value of 1.49g/100g. Under these conditions, the predicted values for triterpenoids agreed well with the experimental results, confirming the validity of the generated model. The SC-CO2 extraction technique showed clear advantages over conventional maceration extraction and soxhlet extraction in terms of high triterpenoid recovery and antioxidant activity. The kinetics of the solvent-based triterpenoid extraction processes were subsequently assessed via the first-order and second-order kinetic models. The second-order kinetic model was more sufficient to describe the extraction mechanism of triterpenoids from G. lucidum in comparison to the first-order kinetic extraction model. According to these findings, SC-CO2 extraction is a promising and efficient method for triterpenoid extraction from G. lucidum.

Rubus alceifolius Poir (R.A. Poir) leaves are rich in phenolic compounds, offering many health benefits due to their incredible antioxidant potential. In this study, conditions for the ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity from R.A. Poir leaves were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). This methodology assessed the effects of ultrasound power (X1: 100-500 W), extraction temperature (X2: 30-60°C), and extraction time (X3: 5-55 min). The optimized UAE conditions were then compared with conventional extraction methods (Soxhlet extraction: SE and maceration extraction: ME) for extracting total phenolics. A phenolic profile using GC-MS and antioxidant activity (ABTS) was also compared. According to the RSM, the best conditions for UAE to extract the highest total polyphenol content and ABTS radical scavenging activity were 320 W ultrasound power, 40°C extraction temperature, and 35.5 min sonication duration. Under these optimal conditions, the TPC and antioxidant activity reached 16.68 mg GAE/g dm and 21.9 mg TE/g, respectively, closely aligning with the predicted values. The UAE extraction technique proved to be more efficient in extracting phenolics and antioxidant capacity (ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)) radical scavenging activity, and enzyme inhibition) compared to the conventional extraction methods (SE and ME). A GC-MS analysis identified 12 components, including 5 phenolics and 3 flavonoids, which likely contribute to the antioxidant activity. Consequently, the UAE method improved extraction efficiency within a shorter time frame, suggesting that UAE is a promising, efficient, and ecofriendly technology for extracting bioactive compounds from R.A. Poir leaves.

This research investigates the effect of SC-CO2 extraction parameters on the triterpenoid recovery from G. lucidum. The SC-CO2 parameters included extraction pressure, extraction temperature, and extraction time. The extraction pressure was varied between 200, 400 and 600 bar, the extraction temperature between 30, 55 and 80 °C, and the extraction time between 30, 75 and 120 min. In this study, the SC-CO2 parameters were first optimized using a response surface methodology (RSM) for maximum triterpenoid recovery. The results showed that the optimal RSM-based SC-CO2 conditions were 430 bar extraction pressure, 54.8 °C extraction temperature and 78.90 min extraction time, achieving the maximum triterpenoid recovery of 1.56 mg/100g. The kinetic behavior of SC-CO2 process was subsequently characterized using a second-order kinetic model under variable extraction pressures and extraction temperatures, given a SC-CO2 time interval. The second-order kinetic models represented well the experimental results of triterpenoid extraction by SC-CO2 method. At these conditions, the triterpenoid extract also exhibited strong scavenging activities with IC50 values of 0.49 mg/mL for the DPPH radical scavenging activity and 0.26 mg/mL for ABTS radical scavenging activity. Thus, triterpenoids extracted from G. lucidum could be regarded as a potential agent for medicinal treatment. The results also suggest that the SC-CO2 extraction can be a useful extraction method for triterpenoid extraction from G. lucidum.